Resistance as the ground of the experience of reality

认识论通常被理解为为知识辩护的一种尝试。但是，这种尝试使我们回到一个先于所有证明问题的问题。在证明知识是正确的之前，知识的对象需要被体验（被认识）。这个项目的假设是，这也成立，特别是对现实的经验。对于我们如何体验现实的问题，一个现有的答案是：通过对世界（即精神世界和物质世界）阻力的体验。这个项目的目的是批判性地评估这个答案，阐明它不仅对认识论，而且对实践和社会哲学的意义，并最终捍卫它。本项目分为三个部分：(a)第一部分是对现实经验以抵抗经验为基础这一论点进行历史和系统的考察。我将首先讨论狄尔泰和其他早期版本的这一论点，重点讨论为什么现代哲学将现实概念限制在外部世界的问题。然后，我将批判性地考察马克斯·舍勒进一步发展这一论点的方式。这里的焦点是舍勒将抵抗现象作为认识论基础的全面尝试(b)项目的下一步不再是解释学的，而是系统的。我特别提到现实的集体体验。换句话说，我一方面汇集了现实经验以抵抗经验为基础的论点，另一方面汇集了最近关于集体经验本质的辩论。最后，我将收获前两步的成果。我将尝试展示我们如何在社会哲学和精神病理学中应用抵抗的论点，例如，通过将某些集体经历解释为集体异化现象。我的项目表明，虽然我们可以区分理论哲学问题和实践哲学问题，但我们无法分别有效地解决这两种问题。

Epistemology is often understood as an attempt to justify knowledge. But this attempt refers us back to a problem which precedes all questions of justification. Before knowledge can be justified, the object of knowledge needs to be experienced (be known). The hypothesis of this project is that this holds true also and especially of the experience of reality. One existing answer to the question of how we experience reality is: by means of the experience of the resistance of the world (i.e., both the mental and physical world). The aim of this project is to critically assess this answer, to elucidate its meaning not only for epistemology but also for practical and social philosophy, and ultimately to defend it. The project is divided into three parts:(a) The first part consists of a historical and systematic examination of the argument that the experience of reality grounds in the experience of resistance. I will first discuss Dilthey's and other early versions of this argument, focusing on the question why modern philosophy restricts the concept of reality to external world. Then I will critically examine the way in which the argument was further developed by Max Scheler. Here the focal point is Scheler's comprehensive attempt to make the phenomenon of resistance the foundation of epistemology(b) The next step of the project is no longer hermeneutical but only systematic. I address specifically the collective experience of reality. In other words, I bring together on the one hand the argument that the experience of reality grounds in the experience of resistance and on the other hand recent debates about the nature of collective experience.(c) Finally, I will reap the fruits from the previous two steps. I will try to show how we can apply the argument of resistance in social philosophy and psychopathology, for instance by interpreting certain collective experiences as phenomena of collective alienation.My project demonstrates that, although we can distinguish between questions of theoretical and of practical philosophy, we cannot effectively address these two kinds of questions separately.