Daily Dynamics in Working Memory Training: The Role of Daily Affect, Motivation, Stress, and Nightly Sleep for Training Success in Elementary School Children

在过去的几十年里，改善或维持认知功能的前景引发了越来越多的认知训练研究。到目前为止，仍然存在大量研究，这些研究仍然存在不同的结果，例如关于工作记忆训练可能的远迁移效应(例如，Karbach&Verhaeghen，2014；vs Melby-Lervág&Hulme，2013；最近的元分析)。近迁移与远迁移指的是对未训练任务的改进，这些任务测量的结构与训练任务的结构相同。远距离迁移效应很重要，因为培训结果需要推广到其他认知能力，以最大限度地支持参与者。然而，认知训练和迁移结果存在很大的个体差异(例如，L等人，2012年)。在我看来，现在是时候更仔细地查看培训数据中的个人信息，以了解这些不同的结果。随着时间的推移，个体在短期的人内过程中可能会有所不同，最终导致人与人之间在培训结果上的差异(参见Könen&Karbach，2015)。为了测试这一方法，我建议在几周的认知训练中研究小学生日常生活过程中的短期人内差异。也就是说，研究培训过程中的认知表现及其与重要的非认知变量的相互作用。本研究侧重于儿童日常生活中四个重要的非认知关键变量，即日常情感、动机、压力和夜间睡眠，它们与儿童的认知表现高度相关(例如，De Veld等人，2014；Dörrenbächer等人，2014；Fartoukh等人，2014)。2014年；Könen等人，2015年)。研究它们与日常训练绩效的相互作用有助于了解与成功训练有关的个体和情境(即状态)特征，这是成功训练和转移的前提。因此，人与人之间的视角有助于理解人与人之间在培训和转移结果方面的差异是如何发展的。本项目侧重于小学生，因为他们正处于关键的学习阶段，也是早期认知训练的主要目标人群。该项目的三个中心目标是(1)描述儿童在既定的工作记忆训练期间的日常认知表现以及日常情感、动机、压力和夜间睡眠；(2)分析非认知变量与训练中认知表现的交互作用；以及(3)根据(1)和(2)中的人内模式预测训练和转移结果。因此，拟议的工作超越了目前有争议的问题，即认知培训是否在团体一级有效(例如，Au等人，2016诉Melby-Lerv&Hulme，2016)，旨在了解认知培训为谁工作以及在哪些情况下有效。

The prospect of improving or maintaining cognitive functioning has provoked a steadily increasing number of cognitive training studies over the last decades. By now a large number of studies exist which still present heterogeneous findings, for example concerning possible far transfer effects of working memory (WM) training (e.g., Karbach & Verhaeghen, 2014; vs. Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; for recent meta-analyses). Near vs. far transfer refers to improvements on non-trained tasks that measure the same vs. a different construct than the trained tasks. Far transfer effects are important because training outcomes need to generalize to other cognitive abilities to optimally support participants. However, large individual differences in cognitive training and transfer outcomes exist (e.g., Lövdén et al., 2012). In my view, it is time to have a closer look at the within-person information in training data to understand these differential outcomes. Individuals likely vary in short-term within-person processes over time that eventually produce between-person differences in training outcomes (cf. Könen & Karbach, 2015). To test this approach, I propose to study short-term within-person variations in daily processes in elementary school children over several weeks of cognitive training. That is to study cognitive performance over the course of the training sessions and its interaction with important non-cognitive variables. The present work focuses on four important non-cognitive key variables in children's daily life, namely daily affect, motivation, stress, and nightly sleep, which are highly relevant for children's cognitive performance (e.g., de Veld et al., 2014; Dörrenbächer et al., 2014; Fartoukh et al. 2014; Könen et al., 2015). Studying their interaction with daily training performance contributes to under-standing individual and situational (i.e. state) characteristics related to successful training sessions, which are a precondition for successful training and transfer. Thus, a within-person perspective can contribute to understanding how between-person differences in training and transfer outcomes develop. The present project focuses on elementary school children because they are in a crucial learning phase and a central target population for early cognitive training. Three central aims of the proposed project are to (1) describe children's daily cognitive performance as well as daily affect, motivation, stress, and nightly sleep during a well-established WM training; (2) analyze the interplay of the non-cognitive variables with cognitive performance during training; and finally (3) predict training and transfer outcomes with within-person patterns from (1) and (2). Thus, the proposed work moves beyond the currently controversially discussed question whether cognitive training works on the group level (e.g., Au et al., 2016 vs. Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2016) and aims at understanding for whom and in which situations it works.