Epistemology of Rechard Rufus, Rodger Bacon and Nicole Oresme that used species and perspective for it

扬·凡·艾克（约1390-1441）被称为荷兰画派的创始人，被认为是用无限层次的明亮色彩描绘空气和光线的创新者。著名的艺术史学家Erwin Panofsky坚持认为，这种创新起源于13世纪的意大利，而不是巴黎，也不是荷兰。然而，13世纪的意大利并没有产生任何空气和光的表达。帕诺夫斯基也坚持认为，亮度的层次表达是由线性透视产生的。但是线性透视似乎不能产生亮度的层次，尽管它代表了平面上的三维视觉。本文试图从中世纪自然哲学的角度来解释这一创新，特别是尼科尔·奥勒斯姆（约1320-1382年）的哲学，他是法国国王查理五世（1337-1380年）的顾问，也是凡·艾克服务的查理六世的父亲。根据oreme的说法，物体的颜色会作用于周围的介质，而介质作用于眼睛的方式更多的是，物体的形状通过形成一个金字塔传递给眼睛，这个金字塔的底部是物体，顶部是眼睛。图像就像一面镜子。它的形状和物体一样，但是体积很小。我们根据图像颜色的强弱来判断物体是否粗糙。对他来说，画有层次的颜色是很自然的。此外，根据奥勒斯姆和中世纪自然哲学家的说法，地球位于宇宙的中心，周围是水、空气、火和由以太构成的天堂。地球周围的空间不是空的，而是充满了空气。空气被认为是四大元素之一，其较厚的部分被称为云。对奥勒斯姆和其他中世纪的自然哲学家来说，吸入空气是很自然的。此外，空气有一定的厚度，可以反射光。这就是为什么一束光使整个暗室明亮，但有层次的原因。对凡·艾克来说，画有亮度层次的光是很自然的。此外，据说奥勒斯姆鼓励画家给书配插图，使书更有价值。用无限的亮度层次来描绘空气和光线的创新似乎与他参与推广插图书有关。少

Jan van Eyck (ca. 1390-1441) is known as the founder of the Nether land School of Painting and is regarded as the innovator of painting air and light with unlimited gradations of bright colors. A famous art historian, Erwin Panofsky, insists that this innovation originated in 13th century Italy, and not in Paris, nor in the Netherlands. However, 13th century Italy did not produce any expression of air and light. Erwin Panofsky also insists that the expression of the gradations of brightness was produced by linear perspective. But linear perspective seems not able to produce the gradations of brightness, though it represents a three-dimensional vision on a plane.This paper tries to explain this innovation in terms of Medieval natural philosophy, particularly the philosophy of Nicole Oresme (ca. 1320-1382) who was consultant to the French King, Charles V (1337-1380), father of Charles VI whom van Eyck served.According to Oresme, the color of an object acts on the surrounding medium and t … More he medium acts on an eye in the way that the shape of the object is transmitted to the eye by forming a pyramid whose base is the object and the top is the eye. The image is like that of a mirror. It has the same shape as the object but is small in size. We judge that the object has roughness by the strength of the colors of that image. It was natural for him to draw colors with gradations. Furthermore, according to Oresme and Medieval natural philosophers, the earth was situated in the center of the Universe and was surrounded by water, air, fire, and heavens made of ether. Space surrounding the earth was not vacant but was filled with air. Air was regarded as one of the four elements and its thicker part was referred to as clouds. It was natural for Oresme and other Medieval natural philosophers to draw air.Besides, air has some thickness and reflects light. That is the reason why one line of light makes a whole dark room bright, but with gradations. It was natural for van Eyck to draw light with gradations of brightness.In addition, Oresme is said to have encouraged painters to illustrate books which made the books more valuable. The innovation of painting air and light with unlimited gradations of brightness seemed to have something to do with his involvement with the promotion of illustrating books. Less