Connecting cognitive biases and typological universals in syntax

语言之间可以有很大的不同。例如，只注重词序，像英语这样的语言把形容词放在名词之前(‘red house’)，而像泰语这样的语言把形容词放在后面(‘house red’)。同样，像越南语这样的语言把数字放在名词之前(三栋房子)，而其他语言，如基撒拉卡语(肯尼亚人说)，把数字放在后面(三栋房子)。如果单词的排序仅仅是偶然的，我们会看到所有不同的顺序在不同的语言中以相同的比例出现，但我们没有发现这一点。事实上，有些订单很常见，有些很罕见，有些似乎根本不出现。例如，许多语言的顺序像英语(‘三栋红房子’)，许多语言也像泰语一样订购，恰好相反(‘房子红三’)。但基撒拉克族(‘三栋红房子’)要罕见得多，它的镜像(‘红色三栋房子’)似乎从未出现过。为什么会这样？语言科学中的一个主要争议是，我们是否需要求助于人类思维的基本结构来解释语言的变化方式，或者这些特性是否相反是交流和社会互动中的文化差异的结果。从心理学的角度来看，最近的许多工作都假设是后者：语言的性质可以归结为交流、互动和历史的变幻莫测，而语言学的大多数工作则假设前者：人类头脑中一定存在偏见，使我们比其他人更容易学习特定类型的语言。这个项目试图解决这个问题。为了做到这一点，我们测试了人们学习不同类型语言的能力，看看他们的行为是否遵循我们在真实语言中看到的一般趋势。重要的是，我们使用人工构建的语言，而不是自然语言，以确保它们只在关键方面有所不同。例如，我们向说英语的人展示了使用泰语和基撒拉克语词序的人工语言。如果泰式语序在所有语言中比基撒拉克语语序更常见，因为前者更容易学习，那么我们应该在实验中看到这一点反映在学习者的行为上。我们还可以看到，这些句型是否总是更难学，或者说一门使用它们的语言--比如基撒拉克语--是否会让它们更容易在一门新语言中掌握。为此，我们的实验比较了说英语、泰语、越南语和基撒拉克语的人。如果我们的学习者在学习我们的人工语言时都表现出了我们在真实语言中发现的相同类型的模式，这将表明语言的变化方式不是随机的，也不完全是历史事实的产物。相反，这表明存在普遍的认知偏差。我们计划不仅研究出现什么顺序的基本问题，还计划研究其他两个众所周知的情况，即语言似乎不是随机变化的。第一个涉及形容词和数字等词相对于它们所修饰的名词的放置方式：大多数语言都将它们放在前面或后面(如英语和泰语)，而不是放在相反的一边(例如，像越南语一样，把它们放在相反的一边)。我们将测试这种类型的模式在一门新语言中是否总是更容易学习。其次，我们将考察人们是否更喜欢学习有后缀的语言(如‘猫-S’)而不是有前缀的语言(如‘不快乐’)。这两种类型在英语中都有，但大多数语言都有(更多的)后缀。我们的项目将阐明在语言学习中是否存在普遍的认知偏见，如果这种偏见对我们所看到的特定现象起作用，以及人们的母语如何影响这些偏见。

Languages can be very different from each other. For example, just focussing on the order of words, languages like English put adjectives before nouns ('red house') while languages like Thai put them afterwards ('house red'). Similarly, languages like Vietnamese put Numerals before nouns ('three houses'), while others, like the Kitharaka (spoken in Kenya), put numerals after ('houses three'). If word ordering was simply due to happenstance, we would expect to see all different orders appearing in equal proportion across languages, but we don't find that. In fact, some orders are very common, some are very rare, and some don't seem to appear at all. For example, many languages are ordered like English ('three red houses'), and many are also ordered like Thai, which is exactly the reverse ('houses red three'). But the Kitharaka order ('houses three red') is much rarer, and its mirror image ('red three houses') never seems to occur. Why is this?One of the major controversies in the language sciences is whether we need to appeal to the basic set-up of the human mind to explain the ways languages can vary, or whether these properties are instead a result of cultural differences in communication and social interaction. A great deal of recent work coming from the perspective of psychology assumes the latter: that the properties of language can be boiled down to communication, interaction and the vagaries of history, while most work in linguistics assumes the former: there must be biases in the human mind that allow us to learn languages of particular types more easily than others. This project seeks to resolve that issue.In order to do this, we test how well people learn languages of various types, to see whether their behaviour follows the general tendencies we see across real languages. Importantly, we use artificially constructed languages, rather than natural languages, in order to make sure that they only differ in the crucial respects. For example, we present English speakers with artificial languages that use word orders from Thai and Kitharaka. If Thai orders are more common across languages than Kitharaka ones because the former are easier to learn, then we should see this reflected in the behaviour of learners in our experiments. We can also see whether such patterns are always harder to learn, or if speaking a language which uses them-like Kitharaka-makes them easier to pick up in a new language. To do this, our experiments compare English, Thai, Vietnamese and Kitharaka speakers. If our learners all show the same kinds of patterns in how they learn our artificial languages that we find across real languages, that will suggest that the way languages vary is not random, nor is it entirely a product of historical facts. Rather it would suggest that there are universal cognitive biases at play. We plan to look at not just the basic question of what orders appear, but also two other well-known cases where languages don't seem to vary randomly. The first relates to how words like adjectives and numbers are placed relative to the nouns they modify: most languages place them both before or after (like English and Thai), rather than putting them on opposite sides (e.g., 'two houses red', like Vietnamese). We will test whether this type of pattern is always easier to learn in a new language. Second, we will look at whether people prefer to learn languages with suffixes (e.g., 'cat-s') rather than prefixes (e.g., 'un-happy'). Both types are present in English, but most languages have (more) suffixes. Our project we will shed light on whether there are universal cognitive biases in language learning, if such biases are at play for the particular phenomena we look at, and how people's native languages affect these biases.