Mine-community conflict resolution and justice: a case study of South Africa's platinum belt

随着开采边界扩展到社会和环境更加敏感的地区，矿区与社区之间的冲突也在增加。通过对南非一个重要案例的研究，本研究将探讨国家、矿业公司和社区之间的关系以及社区内部关系对公正解决矿业-社区冲突的可能性的影响。采掘作业有一个“有争议的和模棱两可的”（Bebbington等人，2008年）的发展记录，并经常带来相当大的冲突，在开采地点产生广泛的社会冲突（Bebbington等人，同上）。3国际采矿和金属理事会（ICMM）发现，2002-2013年期间，矿山与社区的纠纷数量增加了八倍（ICMM，2015）。为了解决这种紧张局势并管理社会政治风险，许多采矿公司采取了企业社会责任（CSR）战略（Bebbington，2018; Bebbington等人，二○ ○八年; Calvano，2007年;弗雷德里克森，2018年;肯普，2011年）;其中许多符合国际金融公司（IFC）、ICMM和联合国（UN）等组织提出的国际标准。这些标准建议公司采用参与性和“协作性程序”（联合国，同上：32）。虽然这是朝着正确方向迈出的一步，但这些模糊的规范性声明未能认识到，矿业社区不是存在于政治真空中的同质实体，社区由具有不同利益和动机的不同群体组成（Agrawal &吉布森，1999年）。当涉及到抵制或接受采矿活动时，内部分歧就会出现，特别是那些更依赖土地维持生计的人和那些可能通过工作或采购合同从矿山中受益的人之间的分歧（孔德和Le Billon，2017）。国家与跨国矿业公司之间的关系进一步决定了如何解决矿山与社区的冲突。采掘企业“时间长、风险大、成本高、资本密集型”（卡梅隆和斯坦利，2017年：59），国家希望吸引外国投资以实现其矿藏的价值，需要为投资者提供广泛的法律的、合同和财政稳定性（同上;贝宾顿等人，二○ ○八年; Frederiksen & Himley，2020：58）。这可能使国家不愿意或无法“在投资者和社区利益之间进行调解”（Szablowski，2007：45）。在南非的铂矿带，采矿作业位于一个庞大的东道社区，有着社区内协调的历史。这是一个充斥着公司与社区冲突的地区：2016-2018年，南非铂金带的东部边缘发生了400多起社会动荡事件（Stoddard，2018）。持续的社区起义表明，人们认为的不公正占了上风。在公司与社区冲突解决的背景下，正义意味着什么吸引了研究兴趣（Hamann & Kapelus，2004;肯普et al.，2018）。2011;伦纳德，2020;怀特曼，2009）。权力对正义的影响是和平与冲突文献中的一个共同主题，但CSR理论中基本上没有这种方法（肯普等人，2011：98）。怀特曼（同上）着重于三种形式的正义：分配，程序和干预。在这种情况下，分配正义指的是冲突解决过程中“达到的目的”（肯普等人，同上：97），以及这些目的的感知公平性;程序正义指的是做出决定的正式过程;而内部正义描述的是公司和社区代表之间的非正式的日常互动（怀特曼，同上）。

As the extractive frontier expands into more socially and environmentally sensitive areas, mine-community conflict is on the rise. Examining a key case study in South Africa, this study willinvestigate the impact that relations between the state, mining companies and communities aswell as intra-community relations have on the likelihood of the just resolution of mine-communityconflict.Context and rationaleThe past few decades have seen sustained extractive sector expansion in developing countries. Extractiveoperations have a "contentious and ambiguous" (Bebbington et al., 2008) developmental record, and oftenbring considerable strife, generating widespread social conflict at sites of extraction (Bebbington et al., ibid).3The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) found that the number of mine-community disputesrose eightfold between 2002-2013 (ICMM, 2015).To address this tension and manage socio-political risk, many mining companies have adopted corporate socialresponsibility (CSR) strategies (Bebbington, 2018; Bebbington et al., 2008; Calvano, 2007; Frederiksen, 2018;Kemp, 2011); many of which align to international standards advanced by organisations like the InternationalFinance Corporation (IFC), the ICMM and the United Nations (UN). These standards advise firms to employparticipatory and "collaborative processes" (UN, ibid:32). Although a step in the right direction, these vague,normative statements fail to recognise that mine communities are not homogenous entities existing in a politicalvacuum.Communities consist of diverse groups with diverse interests and motivations (Agrawal & Gibson, 1999). Whenit comes to resisting or accepting mining activity, internal divisions arise, notably between those moredependent on land to sustain livelihoods and those who might benefit from the mine through jobs orprocurement contracts (Conde & Le Billon, 2017). Relationships between the state and the multinationalmultinational mining companies furthermore shape how mine-community conflicts can be addressed.Extractive ventures are "long, risky, costly, and very capital-intensive" (Cameron & Stanley, 2017:59), and stateshoping to attract foreign investment to realise the value of their mineral deposits need to provide investorsextensive legal, contractual and fiscal stability (ibid; Bebbington et al., 2008; Frederiksen & Himley, 2020:58).This can render states unwilling or unable to "mediate between investors and community interests" (Szablowski,2007:45).On South Africa's platinum belt, mining operations are situated in a sprawling host-communities with a historyof intra-community contestation. It is a region rife with company-community conflict: The eastern limb of SouthAfrica's Platinum Belt has seen over 400 incidents of social unrest between 2016-2018 (Stoddard, 2018).Persistence community uprisings indicate that perceived injustices prevail.What justice means in the context of company-community conflict resolution has attracted research interest(Hamann & Kapelus, 2004; Kemp et al., 2011; Leonard, 2020; Whiteman, 2009). The effect of power on justicehas been a common theme in peace and conflict literature, but this approach has been largely missing in CSRtheory (Kemp et al. 2011:98). Whiteman (ibid) focuses on three forms of justice: distributive, procedural andinteractional. In this context, distributive justice refers to the "ends achieved" (Kemp et al. ibid:97) of a conflictresolution process, and the perceived fairness of such ends; procedural justice refers to the formal processesthrough which decisions are made; and interactional justice describes the informal, day-to-day interactionsbetween company and community representatives (Whiteman, ibid).