U-SHAPED DEVELOPMENT IN INFANT COGNITION AND PERCEPTION

这个子项目是许多研究子项目中利用 资源由NIH/NCRR资助的中心拨款提供。子项目和 调查员(PI)可能从NIH的另一个来源获得了主要资金， 并因此可以在其他清晰的条目中表示。列出的机构是 该中心不一定是调查人员的机构。 虽然传统上认为婴儿或儿童的发展遵循一种不断增加的单调模式，其中婴儿或儿童随着年龄的增长而改善，但更仔细的研究表明，婴儿可能会在取得较高水平的表现后暂时倒退到较低水平(Cashon&Cohen，2003,2004；Werker，Fennell，Corcoran，&Stager，2002)。在某些情况下，这种回归可能是永久性的(Pascalis，de Haan，&Nelson，2002)。这种倒退模式肯定否定了发展只需要稳步改善的传统观念。因此，由于这些回归不是由理论预测的，当它们确实出现时，它们通常是意想不到的，也不被理解。鉴于这一领域的信息匮乏，而且迫切需要阐明这一过程及其后果以预测发育结果，我们拟议的研究的总体目标是调查婴儿时期发现的U形发育模式涉及的潜在机制。更具体地说，我们将确定这些模式是否反映了一种领域通用的适应性学习过程，允许婴儿变得更适合他/她的环境，或者它们是否反映了实验任务的人工制品。 当婴儿表现出U型发育模式时，通常被视为“重组”的结果(Werker&Tees，1984)。我们最近提出(Cashon&Cohen，2003；2004)，当婴儿适应他们的环境时，这种倒退是必要的。婴儿在成为他们周围世界的“专家”的过程中必须吸收重要的信息。然而，作为重组过程的结果，婴儿可能会暂时倒退到较低的水平。两个具体目标将解决拟议研究的目标，即阐明婴儿期U型发展模式所涉及的潜在机制。这两个目标都将通过测试婴儿的视觉习惯化任务来实现，该任务是在婴儿观看一系列人脸和运动物体时测量他们的注视时间。目标1将建立在之前的研究基础上，该研究表明婴儿的面部处理遵循U型模式。目标2将对U型发育先于适应性约束的发展这一预测进行实证检验。目标2将通过调查婴儿对形式-功能相关性的知觉来实现。 目的1探讨婴幼儿面部加工过程中U型发育的基础。在之前的一系列研究中，我们发现，在3到7个月大的婴儿对面孔的处理会产生一个U形图案，表现在大约6个月大的时候下降(Cashon&Cohen，2004)。我们认为，这种回归是必要的，但由于婴儿试图纳入有关面孔的重要信息而导致的过载导致的临时变化。这一概念与婴儿认知和感知的其他领域的研究一致，表明当整合新信息时，婴儿会倒退到较低的加工水平(Cohen，Chaput，&Cashon，2002)。或者，这种明显的U型可能是6个月大的婴儿将注意力转移到只关注面部的眼睛和眉毛的结果。目标1将调查这两个交替的假设。据预测，6个月大的婴儿会表现出超负荷的迹象，而不是简单地处理眼睛和眉毛。 目的2探讨婴幼儿形态-功能相关加工中U型发展模式的基础。对于何时会出现U型发展，目前还缺乏预测。我们认为，U型模式恰好发生在认知修剪的知觉之前。因此，我们预计婴儿在处理形式-功能相关性的过程中会表现出U型发展模式。Madole和Cohen(1995)之前的研究表明，婴儿在14到18个月大的时候会对他们处理这些相关性产生适应性限制。根据我们的假设，我们预测在这两个年龄段之间会出现业绩下降。更具体地说，Madole和Cohen报告发现，14个月大的婴儿对物体特征的外观(形式)与其功能之间的相关性(特征内的形式-功能关联)以及一个特征的形式与另一个特征的功能(特征间的形式-功能关联)很敏感。重要的是，他们还报告说，18个月大的婴儿只对特征内的形式-功能关联敏感。我们的具体预测是，大约16个月大的婴儿会退化，对任何一种相关性都不敏感。

This subproject is one of many research subprojects utilizing the resources provided by a Center grant funded by NIH/NCRR. The subproject and investigator (PI) may have received primary funding from another NIH source, and thus could be represented in other CRISP entries. The institution listed is for the Center, which is not necessarily the institution for the investigator. Although development is traditionally thought to follow an increasing, monotonic pattern in which infants or children improve with age, closer examination indicates that infants may regress temporarily to a lower level, subsequent to achieving a higher level of performance (Cashon & Cohen, 2003, 2004; Werker, Fennell, Corcoran, & Stager, 2002). In some cases this regression may be permanent (Pascalis, de Haan, & Nelson, 2002). Such regression patterns certainly negate the traditional notion that development only entails steady improvement. Accordingly, since these regressions are not predicted by theories, when they do appear they are usually unexpected and not understood. Given the paucity of information in this area and the critical need for elucidating this process and its consequences for predicting developmental outcomes, our overall GOAL for the proposed research is to investigate the underlying mechanisms involved in U-shaped patterns of development found during infancy. More specifically, we will determine whether such patterns reflect a domain-general, adaptive learning process that allows the infant to become more tailored to his/her environment or whether they reflect changes that are artifacts of the experimental task. When infants display a U-shaped pattern of development, it is often viewed as a result of "reorganization" (Werker & Tees, 1984). We recently argued (Cashon & Cohen, 2003; 2004) that such regressions are necessary as infants adapt to their environment. Infants must incorporate important information en route to becoming "experts" in the world around them. As a result of the reorganization process, however, infants may temporarily regress to a lower level. Two specific aims will address the GOAL of the proposed research, which is to elucidate the underlying mechanisms involved in U-shaped patterns of development during infancy. Both aims will be met by testing infants in a visual habituation task, whereby infants' looking times are measured while they view a series of faces and moving objects. Aim 1 will build upon previous research indicating that infants' face processing follows a U-shaped pattern. Aim 2 will empirically test the prediction that U-shaped development occurs prior to the development of an adaptive constraint. Aim 2 will be achieved by investigating infants' perception of form-function correlations. Aim 1 investigates the bases for the U-shaped pattern of development in infants' processing of faces. In a previous set of studies, we found that between 3 and 7 months of age, infants' processing of faces produces a U-shaped pattern with a drop in performance occurring at approximately 6 months of age (Cashon & Cohen, 2004). We argue this regression is a necessary, but temporary change resulting from overload as infants try to incorporate important information about faces. This notion is consistent with research in other areas of infant cognition and perception showing that when integrating new information infants regress to a lower level of processing (Cohen, Chaput, & Cashon, 2002). Alternatively, the apparent U-shape could be the result of 6-month-olds shifting their attention to focus exclusively on the eyes and eyebrows of a face. Aim 1 will investigate these two alternate hypotheses. It is predicted that 6 month olds will show evidence of overload and not of simply processing the eyes and eyebrows of a face. Aim 2 investigates the bases for U-shaped pattern of development in infants' processing of form-function correlations. Predictions of when U-shaped development will occur are lacking. We argue that U-shaped patterns occur just prior to perceptual of cognitive pruning. Accordingly, we would expect infants to show a U-shaped developmental pattern in their processing of form-function correlations. Previous research by Madole and Cohen (1995) indicates that infants develop an adaptive constraint on their processing these correlations between 14 and 18 months of age. Based on our hypothesis, we predict that a drop in performance occurs between these two ages. More specifically, Madole and Cohen reported finding that 14-month-olds are sensitive to the correlation between the appearance (form) of a feature of an object and its function (within-feature form-function correlation) as well as the form of one feature and the function of another (between-feature form-function correlation). Importantly, they also reported that 18-month-olds are sensitive only to the within-feature form-function correlation. Our specific prediction is that infants at approximately 16 months will regress and show no sensitivity to either correlation.