Emergence of spatial cognition and memory

关于动物对资源位置的认识的研究是多种多样的。动物使用视觉地标和地标之间的空间关系来区分它们过去发现或储存食物的地方（灵长类动物：Menzel & Juno 1985，MacDonald et al. 1994，Janson 1998，2000;非灵长类哺乳动物：Collett et al. 1986，Olton 1978，Vander Wall 1991，Jacobs 1992;鸟类：Sherry 1984; Shettleworth 1995; Krebs等人1990，Vander Wall 1990，Balda & Kamil 1992，Herz等人1994;昆虫和其他动物：Galvel 1990; Wehner等人， 1996年）。灵长类动物的旅行模式表明动物保留了关于资源位置的信息。 罗望子几乎以直线的方式从一棵结果实的树移到另一棵相同的树上，同时结果实（Garber 1989）。黑猩猩将石头运送数百米到树根砧上以破碎坚果（Boesch & Boesch 1984），而圈养的倭黑猩猩和猩猩将选择，运输和保存工具以在1小时后使用（Mulcahy & Call 2006）。Hamadryas狒狒朝向遥远的waterhde，这群狒狒将在稍后重新聚集（Sigg & Stolba 1981）。 PI提供了野生灵长类动物学习和记忆能力运作的实验演示。日本猕猴似乎从一个食物发现中形成了关于活跃食物点的假设，考虑到食物的类型和过去季节包含它的位置（Menzel 1991）。圈养长尾猕猴根据食物与可见环境特征的接近程度（Menzel 1996 a，B）和初始食物的空间布局（Hemmi & Menzel 1995）改变其搜索。 在对圈养黑猩猩的研究中（E.Menzel，1973 a，B，1978，1984），一组6只黑猩猩中的一只被携带，可以看到实验者在1英亩的田地里藏了多达18堆食物。几分钟后，当这只动物被释放时，它找到了大部分隐藏的食物。它连接食物堆的路线近似于最短距离路线。

Studies on animals' knowledge of resource locations are diverse. Animals use visual landmarks and spatial relations among landmarks to discriminate places where they found or stored food in the past (primates: Menzel & Juno 1985, MacDonald et al. 1994, Janson 1998, 2000; nonprimate mammals: Collett et al. 1986, Olton 1978, Vander Wall 1991, Jacobs 1992; birds: Sherry 1984; Shettleworth 1995; Krebs et al. 1990, Vander Wall 1990, Balda & Kamil 1992, Herz et al. 1994; insects and other animals: Gallistel 1990; Wehner et al., 1996). The travel patterns of primates suggest animals retain information about the location of resources. Tamarins move in neariy straight lines from one fruit-bearing tree to another tree of the same, synchronously fruiting species (Garber 1989). Chimpanzees transport stones hundreds of meters to tree-root anvils for cracking nuts (Boesch & Boesch 1984), and captive bonobos and orangutans will select, transport, and save tools to use 1 hour later (Mulcahy & Call 2006). Hamadryas baboons orient toward the distant waterhde at which the band will reassemble later (Sigg & Stolba 1981). The PI provided an experimental demonstration of the operation of learning and memory capabilities in wild primates. Japanese macaques appeared to form hypotheses about active food sites from one food find, taking into account the type of food item and the locations that contained it in past seasons (Menzel 1991). Captive long-tailed macaques varied their search according to food's proximity to visible environmental features (Menzel 1996a, b) and the spatial layout of initial food items (Hemmi & Menzel 1995). In studies of captive chimpanzees (E.Menzel 1973a,b, 1978, 1984), a single animal from a group of six was carried and could watch as an experimenter hid up to 18 piles of food in a 1-acre field. When the animal was released several min later, it recovered most of the hidden food. Its route connecting the food piles approximated a least-distance routing.