What is it to pick up an upside-down cup? The dynamic interaction between actor, environment, and task in the emergence of second-order planning for object manipulation

问题.抓住物体的方式可以用来推断行动是如何计划的。对象属性（例如，大小）在一阶规划中被考虑;而二阶规划的特征在于对次要任务需求的预期（例如，对象使用）。通常被称为最终状态舒适（ESC）效应，成年人通常采取行动，以确保舒适的最终姿势。儿童表现出ESC的倾向降低归因于不成熟的二阶规划能力;然而，文献中不一致的报告限制了对发展过程的理解。挑战.为什么儿童在一些研究中显示ESC，而不是其他人，尚未得到解决。一个建议是，儿童感知舒适度不同于成人，因此，测量ESC在儿童的观察措施可能无法捕捉的发展，二阶规划，本身。拟议的研究将使用观测和运动学措施来提供更详细的见解。早期的工作集中在随着年龄的变化，并指导信息处理的角度。拟议的研究考虑了动态系统的观点。由于许多因素约束对象操作，因此有必要考虑参与者之间的动态交互（即，身体和心理特征），环境（即，围绕演员的外力），以及任务（即，任务的目标和规则以及所使用的设备）。 目标.拟议的研究将调查演员（认知和运动功能，手的大小和手臂长度）和环境（对象的大小和位置）在传统的对象操作任务（杯子，酒吧运输，和旋转任务）的特征之间的相互作用。这项研究旨在破译二阶规划行为在从童年到青年的发展过程中如何变化。方法.实验将包括典型的儿童和成人。观察（二阶规划，手选择）和运动学（3D运动跟踪）数据将收集在杯，酒吧运输，和旋转任务。目标1的研究将纵向跟踪业绩。在一系列的横断面调查中，目标2将调查对象大小和手的大小之间的相互作用，目标3将检查对象的位置，臂长和手的偏好之间的相互作用。将评估所有参与者的运动熟练度、执行功能和利手，沿着人口统计学（性别、年龄）和人体测量学（手大小、臂长）测量。 冲击这项工作将提供基本的见解;不一致的报告将被解开，并将创建对象操作的到达抓取的神经典型发展的知识。调查结果也将具有实际意义（例如，运动障碍儿童的职业治疗）。

Issue. The way an object is grasped can be used to infer how the action was planned. Object properties (e.g., size) are considered in first-order planning; whereas second-order planning is characterized by the anticipation of secondary task demands (e.g., object use). Often referred to as the end-state comfort (ESC) effect, adults generally act to ensure a comfortable final posture. A reduced tendency for children to demonstrate ESC has been attributed to immature second-order planning abilities; however, inconsistent reports in the literature limit understanding of the course of development. Challenge. Why children display ESC in some studies, but not others, has yet to be resolved. One suggestion is that children perceive comfort differently than adults; therefore, measuring ESC in children with observational measures may not capture the development of second-order planning, per se. The proposed research will use observational and kinematic measures to provide more detailed insights. Earlier work focused on changes with age and was guided by an information processing perspective. The proposed research considers the Dynamic Systems perspective. As many factors constrain object manipulation, it is necessary to consider the dynamic interaction between actor (i.e., physical and psychological characteristics), environment (i.e., external forces surrounding the actor), and task (i.e., goals and rules of the task and equipment used) in the development of second-order object manipulation. Objectives. The proposed research will investigate interactions between characteristics of the actor (cognitive and motor function, hand size and arm length) and environment (object size and location) in traditional object manipulation tasks (cup, bar-transport, and handle-rotation tasks). This research aims to decipher how second-order planning behaviours change over the course of development from childhood to young adulthood. Methods. Experiments will include neurotypical children and adults. Observational (second-order planning, hand selection) and kinematic (3D motion tracking) data will be collected in cup, bar-transport, and handle-rotation tasks. Research in Objective 1 will track performance longitudinally. Over a series of cross-sectional investigations, Objective 2 will investigate the interaction between object size and hand size, and Objective 3 will examine interactions between object location, arm length, and hand preference. Motor proficiency, executive function, and handedness will be assessed in all participants, along with demographic (sex, age) and anthropometric (hand size, arm length) measures. Impact. This work will offer fundamental insights; inconsistent reports will be disentangled, and knowledge of the neurotypical development of reach-to-grasp for object manipulation will be created. Findings will also have practical implications (e.g., occupational therapy for children with motor difficulties).