Nanoparticle exposures from nano-enabled toner-based printing equipment and human health: state of science and future research needs.
Nanoparticle exposures from nano-enabled toner-based printing equipment and human health: state of science and future research needs.
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DOI：
10.1080/10408444.2017.1318354
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发表时间：
2017-09
影响因子：
5.9
通讯作者：
Demokritou P
中科院分区：
文献类型：
--
作者：
Pirela SV;Martin J;Bello D;Demokritou P
激光打印机 (LP) 和复印机 (PC) 使用的碳粉配方统称为“基于碳粉的打印设备”(TPE)，是纳米产品 (NEP)，因为它们含有多种可提高碳粉性能的工程纳米材料 (ENM)。研究表明，在消费者使用（印刷）过程中，这些 ENM 与其他半挥发性有机纳米颗粒以及新形成的气态副污染物（例如挥发性有机化合物 (VOC)）一起释放到空气中。本次综述的目的是详细分析 TPE 排放的颗粒物 (PM) 的物理化学和形态 (PCM) 以及毒理学特性。该评论涵盖了自 2000 年初以来科学的演变（当时打印技术首次成为公众关注的主题），以及围绕该技术的滞后监管框架。还强调了显着改变我们对这些暴露的理解的重要研究。审查继续对最新的细胞、动物和人类毒理学证据进行严格评估，以了解 TPE 排放的 PM 对人类健康的潜在不利影响。我们强调了现有研究的一些局限性，包括：（i）在体外或体内使用高且往往不切实际的剂量； (ii) 气管内滴注研究中剂量率过高，不切实际； (iii) 不当使用碳粉作为发射的纳米粒子的替代品； (iv) 暴露的 PCM 特征缺乏或不充分； (v) 体外研究中缺乏剂量测定考虑。目前，有令人信服的证据表明，TPE 中的 PM01 具有生物活性，能够在体外和体内诱导氧化应激、体内（大鼠）和人类呼吸道炎症、单一培养物和共培养物中细胞损伤的几个终点，包括体外适度的表观遗传修饰。在人类中，有限的流行病学研究报告称，复印机操作员的慢性咳嗽、喘息、鼻塞、痰液过多、呼吸困难和呼吸短促的患病率通常比对照组高 2-3 倍。在长期接触过程中以及易吸入污染物的个体中，此类症状可能会加剧。因此，在此类暴露后可能会出现呼吸系统、免疫系统、心血管系统和其他疾病；然而，必须进行进一步的毒理学和更大规模的分子流行病学研究，以充分了解这些 TPE 发射的纳米颗粒的作用机制。还发现了主要的研究空白。其中，需要基于“现实世界”暴露而不是仅基于碳粉颗粒进行系统性风险评估，以提供急需的数据，以制定保护职业和消费者层面暴露于 TPE 排放的个人的监管指南。还迫切需要全行业的分子流行病学以及机械动物和人类研究。
Toner formulations used by laser printers (LP) and photocopiers (PC), collectively called “toner-based printing equipment” (TPE), are nano-enabled products (NEP) because they contain several engineered nanomaterials (ENM) that improve toner performance. It has been shown that during consumer use (printing), these ENM are released in the air, together with other semi volatile organic nanoparticles, and newly formed gaseous co-pollutants such as volatile organic compounds (VOC). The aim of this review is to detail and analyze physico-chemical and morphological (PCM), as well as the toxicological properties of particulate matter (PM) emissions from TPE. The review covers evolution of science since the early 2000, when this printing technology first became a subject of public interest, as well as the lagging regulatory framework around it. Important studies that have significantly changed our understanding of these exposures are also highlighted. The review continues with a critical appraisal of the most up-to-date cellular, animal and human toxicological evidence on the potential adverse human health effects of PM emitted from TPE. We highlight several limitations of existing studies, including: (i) use of high and often unrealistic doses in vitro or in vivo; (ii) unrealistically high dose rates in intratracheal instillation studies; (iii) improper use of toners as surrogate for emitted nanoparticles; (iv) lack of or inadequate PCM characterization of exposures; and (v) lack of dosimetry considerations in in vitro studies. Presently, there is compelling evidence that the PM01 from TPE are biologically active and capable of inducing oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo, respiratory tract inflammation in vivo (in rats) and in humans, several endpoints of cellular injury in monocultures and co-cultures, including moderate epigenetic modifications in vitro. In humans, limited epidemiological studies report typically 2-3 times higher prevalence of chronic cough, wheezing, nasal blockage, excessive sputum production, breathing difficulties, and shortness of breath, in copier operators relative to controls. Such symptoms can be exacerbated during chronic exposures, and in individuals susceptible to inhaled pollutants. Thus respiratory, immunological, cardiovascular, and other disorders may be developed following such exposures; however, further toxicological and larger scale molecular epidemiological studies must be done to fully understand the mechanism of action of these TPE emitted nanoparticles. Major research gaps have also been identified. Among them, a methodical risk assessment based on “real world” exposures rather than on the toner particles alone needs to be performed to provide the much-needed data to establish regulatory guidelines protective of individuals exposed to TPE emissions at both the occupational and consumer level. Industry-wide molecular epidemiology as well as mechanistic animal and human studies are also urgently needed.
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