Doctoral Dissertation Research: The Role of Ochre in the Development of Modern Human Behavior: A Case Study From South Africa

近年来，由于越来越多的证据表明早熟行为被认为是我们物种所独有的，南部非洲在现代人类起源的辩论中占据了突出地位。这些重要的发现包括骨制工具、贝壳珠、雕刻的鸵鸟蛋壳，以及大量研磨和雕刻的赭石碎片。在非洲南部的中石器时代（MSA，约250- 40 kya）考古遗址中发现的赭石，是用于制作早期油漆的地质材料，通常被认为是艺术品或象征主义存在的证据，这是一种独特的现代人类行为。然而，这一时期没有留下任何艺术品，关于赭石的用途存在重大争议。除了少数例外，赭石基本上没有被研究过。该项目将测试在MSA中使用赭石的竞争模型。一系列相关的研究问题将得到解决：在MSA考古遗址品尼高点（PP），南非，什么活动涉及赭石可能发生？赭石是用作艺术活动的颜料，还是用于更基本的日常活动？在哪里收集赭石？是否有不同的颜色偏好正在采购或材料进行热处理，以实现所需的颜色？该研究包括应用独特的研究方法组合来识别早期象征性的人类行为。这些新的分析加在一起将为所提出的研究问题提供更有说服力的答案。PP场地综合体作为一个理想的案例研究为该项目增添了更多的价值。 该研究区为南非海岸古气候、古环境、古生态学和古人类学（SACP 4）项目提供了发达的挖掘和研究基础设施。以前和目前的挖掘已经产生了足够的赭石组合的研究，可供联合PI。此外，这些遗址的考古赭石年代久远，可能是世界上最早的改良赭石。最后，从这项研究中获得的见解将在未来与其他人工制品类型的工作相结合，以更广泛地了解这一时期现代行为的发展。这项研究的更广泛影响包括对古人类学中最突出的辩论之一的贡献，即现代人类起源。 这项研究还将通过填补有关MSA的知识空白和改进这一时期赭石分析方法来影响考古学领域。这项工作将进一步为Co-PI提供跨学科培训，并将通过在专业会议和期刊上的演讲与人类学界分享成果。 该项目还将通过在美国和南非的社区讲座以及人类起源研究所的网站BecomingHuman.com和SACP 4项目的公共网站向公众开放。

In recent years, southern Africa has figured prominently in the modern human origins debate due to increasing evidence for precocious behaviors considered to be unique to our species. These significant findings have included bone tools, shell beads, engraved ostrich eggshell, and heavily ground and engraved ochre fragments. The presence of ochre, geological material ground to produce early paint, in Middle Stone Age (MSA, ~250-40kya) archaeological sites in southern Africa is often proposed as evidence for the existence of artwork or symbolism, a uniquely modern human behavior. However, there is no remaining artwork from this period and there is significant debate about what the ochre may have been used for. With a few exceptions, ochre has gone largely unstudied. This project will test competing models for ochre use in the MSA. A series of related research questions will be addressed: Within MSA archaeological sites at Pinnacle Point (PP), South Africa, what activities involving ochre were likely taking place? Was ochre used as a pigment for artistic activities or was it for more basic everyday activities? Where is the ochre being collected? Are there distinct color preferences being procured or are materials being heat treated to achieve desired colors?The research includes the application of a unique combination of research approaches to identify early symbolic human behavior. Taken together these new analyses will provide more conclusive answers to the proposed research questions. The PP site complex adds further merit to the project as an ideal case study. The research area has a well developed excavation and research infrastructure in place for the South African Coast Paleoclimate, Paleoenvironment, Paleoecology, and Paleoanthropology (SACP4) project. Previous and current excavations have yielded adequate ochre assemblages for study that are available to the Co-PI. Further, the archaeological ochre at these sites is well dated and may be among the earliest modified ochre in the world. Lastly, insights gained from this research will be incorporated with work on other artifact types in the future to achieve a broader understanding of the development of modern behavior in this time period.The broader impacts of this study include a contribution to one of the most prominent debates in paleoanthropology, that of modern human origins. This study will also impact the field of archaeology by filling a gap in knowledge about the MSA and improving methods of ochre analysis in this time period.. This work will further provide the Co-PI with interdisciplinary training, and outcomes will be shared with the anthropological community through presentations at professional conferences and in journals. The project will also be made accessible to the general public through community lectures in the United States and South Africa as well as the Institute of Human Origins' BecomingHuman.com website, and the SACP4 project's public website.