Doctoral Dissertation Research: The Role of Ochre in the Development of Modern Human Behavior: A Case Study From South Africa

近年来，由于越来越多的证据表明早熟行为被认为是我们物种独有的，南部非洲在现代人类起源的辩论中占据了突出的地位。这些重要的发现包括骨头工具、贝壳珠子、雕刻的鸵鸟蛋壳，以及大量研磨和雕刻的赭石碎片。在非洲南部的中石器时代(MSA，约250-40 kya)考古遗址中，存在赭石，这是一种研磨成早期绘画的地质材料，经常被认为是艺术品或象征主义存在的证据，这是一种独特的现代人类行为。然而，这一时期的艺术品已所剩无几，对于这件赭石可能被用来做什么存在着重大的争论。除了少数例外，赭石在很大程度上没有得到研究。这个项目将测试在MSA中使用赭石的竞争模型。一系列相关的研究问题将被解决：在南非顶峰点(PP)的MSA考古遗址内，可能发生了哪些涉及赭石的活动？赭石是作为一种颜料用于艺术活动，还是更基本的日常活动？从哪里收集到的赭石呢？人们是否获得了明显的颜色偏好，或者是否对材料进行了热处理以获得所需的颜色？这项研究包括应用一种独特的研究方法组合来识别早期的象征性人类行为。综上所述，这些新的分析将为拟议的研究问题提供更确凿的答案。PP场地综合体作为一个理想的案例研究，为该项目增添了进一步的优点。该研究区拥有完善的挖掘和研究基础设施，可用于南非海岸古气候、古环境、古生态和古人类学(SACP4)项目。以前和现在的挖掘都产生了足够的赭石组合供研究，可供联合和平研究所使用。此外，这些遗址的考古赭石年代很久远，可能是世界上最早的改性赭石之一。最后，从这项研究中获得的见解将在未来与其他人工制品类型的工作结合起来，以实现对这一时期现代行为发展的更广泛的理解。这项研究的更广泛的影响包括对古人类学中最突出的争论之一--现代人类起源的贡献。这项研究也将通过填补对MSA的认识空白和改进这一时期的Ochre分析方法来影响考古学领域。这项工作将进一步为该委员会提供跨学科培训，并将通过在专业会议和期刊上的发言与人类学界分享成果。该项目还将通过美国和南非的社区讲座以及人类起源研究所的BecomingHuman.com网站和SACP4项目的公共网站向公众开放。

In recent years, southern Africa has figured prominently in the modern human origins debate due to increasing evidence for precocious behaviors considered to be unique to our species. These significant findings have included bone tools, shell beads, engraved ostrich eggshell, and heavily ground and engraved ochre fragments. The presence of ochre, geological material ground to produce early paint, in Middle Stone Age (MSA, ~250-40kya) archaeological sites in southern Africa is often proposed as evidence for the existence of artwork or symbolism, a uniquely modern human behavior. However, there is no remaining artwork from this period and there is significant debate about what the ochre may have been used for. With a few exceptions, ochre has gone largely unstudied. This project will test competing models for ochre use in the MSA. A series of related research questions will be addressed: Within MSA archaeological sites at Pinnacle Point (PP), South Africa, what activities involving ochre were likely taking place? Was ochre used as a pigment for artistic activities or was it for more basic everyday activities? Where is the ochre being collected? Are there distinct color preferences being procured or are materials being heat treated to achieve desired colors?The research includes the application of a unique combination of research approaches to identify early symbolic human behavior. Taken together these new analyses will provide more conclusive answers to the proposed research questions. The PP site complex adds further merit to the project as an ideal case study. The research area has a well developed excavation and research infrastructure in place for the South African Coast Paleoclimate, Paleoenvironment, Paleoecology, and Paleoanthropology (SACP4) project. Previous and current excavations have yielded adequate ochre assemblages for study that are available to the Co-PI. Further, the archaeological ochre at these sites is well dated and may be among the earliest modified ochre in the world. Lastly, insights gained from this research will be incorporated with work on other artifact types in the future to achieve a broader understanding of the development of modern behavior in this time period.The broader impacts of this study include a contribution to one of the most prominent debates in paleoanthropology, that of modern human origins. This study will also impact the field of archaeology by filling a gap in knowledge about the MSA and improving methods of ochre analysis in this time period.. This work will further provide the Co-PI with interdisciplinary training, and outcomes will be shared with the anthropological community through presentations at professional conferences and in journals. The project will also be made accessible to the general public through community lectures in the United States and South Africa as well as the Institute of Human Origins' BecomingHuman.com website, and the SACP4 project's public website.