Daily Dynamics in Working Memory Training: The Role of Daily Affect, Motivation, Stress, and Nightly Sleep for Training Success in Elementary School Children

在过去的几十年里，改善或维持认知功能的前景引发了越来越多的认知训练研究。到目前为止，大量的研究仍然呈现出异质的发现，例如关于工作记忆（WM）训练可能的远传递效应（例如，Karbach & Verhaeghen, 2014; vs. melby - lerv<s:1> & Hulme, 2013；用于最近的元分析）。近迁移与远迁移指的是对非训练任务的改进，这些任务测量的是与训练任务相同的结构，而不是不同的结构。远迁移效应很重要，因为训练结果需要推广到其他认知能力，以最佳地支持参与者。然而，认知训练和迁移结果存在很大的个体差异（例如，Lövdén et al., 2012）。在我看来，现在是时候仔细研究培训数据中的个人信息，以了解这些不同的结果。随着时间的推移，个体可能在短期内部过程中有所不同，最终产生培训结果的人与人之间的差异（参见Könen和Karbach， 2015）。为了测试这种方法，我建议在几个星期的认知训练中，研究小学生日常过程中的短期内部变化。即研究训练过程中的认知表现及其与重要非认知变量的相互作用。目前的工作重点关注儿童日常生活中四个重要的非认知关键变量，即日常影响、动机、压力和夜间睡眠，它们与儿童的认知表现高度相关（例如，de Veld等人，2014；Dörrenbächer等人，2014；Fartoukh等人，2014；Könen等人，2015）。研究它们与日常训练表现的相互作用有助于理解与成功训练课程相关的个人和情境（即状态）特征，这是成功训练和转移的先决条件。因此，内部视角有助于理解培训和迁移结果中人与人之间的差异是如何产生的。目前项目的重点是小学生，因为他们正处于关键的学习阶段，是早期认知训练的中心目标人群。提出的项目的三个中心目标是：(1)描述儿童的日常认知表现以及日常影响、动机、压力和夜间睡眠在一个完善的WM训练；(2)分析训练过程中非认知变量与认知表现的相互作用；最后(3)利用(1)和(2)的内部模式预测培训和迁移结果。因此，拟议的工作超越了目前有争议的讨论问题，即认知训练是否在群体层面上起作用（例如，Au等人，2016年vs. melby - lerv<s:1> & Hulme， 2016年），旨在理解它对谁以及在哪些情况下起作用。

The prospect of improving or maintaining cognitive functioning has provoked a steadily increasing number of cognitive training studies over the last decades. By now a large number of studies exist which still present heterogeneous findings, for example concerning possible far transfer effects of working memory (WM) training (e.g., Karbach & Verhaeghen, 2014; vs. Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; for recent meta-analyses). Near vs. far transfer refers to improvements on non-trained tasks that measure the same vs. a different construct than the trained tasks. Far transfer effects are important because training outcomes need to generalize to other cognitive abilities to optimally support participants. However, large individual differences in cognitive training and transfer outcomes exist (e.g., Lövdén et al., 2012). In my view, it is time to have a closer look at the within-person information in training data to understand these differential outcomes. Individuals likely vary in short-term within-person processes over time that eventually produce between-person differences in training outcomes (cf. Könen & Karbach, 2015). To test this approach, I propose to study short-term within-person variations in daily processes in elementary school children over several weeks of cognitive training. That is to study cognitive performance over the course of the training sessions and its interaction with important non-cognitive variables. The present work focuses on four important non-cognitive key variables in children's daily life, namely daily affect, motivation, stress, and nightly sleep, which are highly relevant for children's cognitive performance (e.g., de Veld et al., 2014; Dörrenbächer et al., 2014; Fartoukh et al. 2014; Könen et al., 2015). Studying their interaction with daily training performance contributes to under-standing individual and situational (i.e. state) characteristics related to successful training sessions, which are a precondition for successful training and transfer. Thus, a within-person perspective can contribute to understanding how between-person differences in training and transfer outcomes develop. The present project focuses on elementary school children because they are in a crucial learning phase and a central target population for early cognitive training. Three central aims of the proposed project are to (1) describe children's daily cognitive performance as well as daily affect, motivation, stress, and nightly sleep during a well-established WM training; (2) analyze the interplay of the non-cognitive variables with cognitive performance during training; and finally (3) predict training and transfer outcomes with within-person patterns from (1) and (2). Thus, the proposed work moves beyond the currently controversially discussed question whether cognitive training works on the group level (e.g., Au et al., 2016 vs. Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2016) and aims at understanding for whom and in which situations it works.