From subjects to citizens: society and the everyday state in North India and Pakistan, 1947-1964

南亚从殖民主义向独立和民主的过渡是二十世纪中期最重大的事件之一。这一时期印度和巴基斯坦的大规模制度史主要与经济发展、世俗国家（对印度来说）的性质和政党政治的发展有关。60年过去了，本项目首次关注1947-1964年间印度北方邦和巴基斯坦信德省这两个次大陆地区的普通印度人和巴基斯坦人是如何经历从殖民统治到独立的过渡的。在这个层面上，印度和巴基斯坦之间的比较如何为这个国家在这个世界政治敏感地区的相对成功或失败问题提供独特的见解。通过比较印度次大陆地方政府机构的经验，研究独立对印度和巴基斯坦普通民众的明确相关性和意义有多大。具体而言，该项目将比较印度北方邦（勒克瑙及其周边地区）和巴基斯坦信德省的情况。特别是，该项目将重点关注三个关键主题，作为揭示这一过渡时期民众对国家反应本质的一种方式。首先，它将着眼于公众对印度世俗主义的反应，以及对巴基斯坦宗教和宗派差异的反应。它将调查个别重要官员如何管理社区节日和游行、圣地的建设和维护以及社区活动的管理。在这种情况下，该项目分析了独立后北方邦和信德省国家行政机构中“世俗主义”和“社群主义”或宗教冲突思想的日常应用。虽然新的巴基斯坦国家没有为自己引入世俗宪法，但地方官员在实践中仍然需要监督宗教/社区活动，就像他们在北方邦的对手一样：例如处理和扩散不同宗教团体（如什叶派和逊尼派）之间可能发生的冲突，以及控制（经常有争议的）宗教重要场所。他们在这方面的作用不可避免地提出了关于国家性质及其参与宗教活动日常管理的问题。其次，该项目将考察南亚人对公民身份、治理、腐败和政治代表的日常反应。通过省公务员制度和警察部门的棱镜，重点将放在国家的日常经验及其在印度和巴基斯坦人生活中的表现。在这里，该项目将考虑北方邦和信德省地方各级不断变化的统治和治理意识形态。是什么特殊的社会和专业观念支撑着管理者对官僚权力的看法？这些在多大程度上反映了独立期间从殖民地到民主政治制度的更广泛的变化？该项目的这一部分将继续研究政府和社会的流行态度如何推动了与公务员招聘有关的社会期望，并将研究这一过程如何反映印度和巴基斯坦中产阶级的出现。这项研究还将考察基于种姓或宗教社区联盟的地方政治团体将其更广泛的政治战略转向控制地方行政机构的程度。普通的南亚人是如何调动国家资源的？这一目标将涉及当代南亚对基于种姓制度的邦保留制度的巨大兴趣，以及游说团体如何采用特殊的政治策略来招募政府服务人员。这些过程与巴基斯坦中产阶级北印度难民对国家机构的控制相比如何？

South Asia's transition from colonialism to independence and democracy was one of the most momentous events of the mid twentieth century. Large scale institutional histories of India and Pakistan for this period are mostly concerned with issues of economic development, the nature of the secular state (for India) and the development of party politics. Sixty years on, this project looks, for the first time, at how ordinary Indians and Pakistanis experienced the transition from colonial rule to Independence in two parts of the subcontinent: Uttar Pradesh, India, and Sindh, Pakistan, between 1947-1964. It asks how comparisons between India and Pakistan at this level provide unique insights into the question of the relative success or failure of the state in this politically sensitive part of the world. It examines how far Independence was explicitly relevant and meaningful for ordinary Indians and Pakistanis, by comparing subcontinental experiences of local state institutions. Specifically, the project will compare regions of Uttar Pradesh, India (Lucknow and surrounding districts), and the Sindh region of Pakistan.In particular, the project will focus on three critical themes as a way of unravelling the nature of popular responses to the state in this transitional period. Firstly, it will look at popular responses to secularism in India, and to religious and sectarian difference in Pakistan. It will investigate how prominent individual officials managed community festivals and processions, the building and maintenance of holy sites and the regulation of community activities. In this light, the project analyzes the routine, daily application of ideas about 'secularism' and 'communalism' or religious conflict in the administrative machinery of the state in Uttar Pradesh and Sindh after Independence. While the new Pakistani state did not introduce for itself a secular constitution, local officials in practice still needed to supervise religious/community activities in much the same way as their Uttar Pradesh counterparts: eg handling and diffusing possible clashes between different religious groups (eg Shias and Sunnis), and controlling (often contested) sites of religious significance. Their role in this respect inevitably raised questions about the nature of the state and its involvement in the day-to-day management of religious activity. Secondly, the project will examine everyday South Asian responses to citizenship, governance, corruption and political representation. The focus would be upon the everyday experience of the state and in its manifestations in Indian and Pakistani lives, through the prism of the Provincial Civil Services, and the Police Services. Here, the project will consider the changing ideologies of rule and governance at local levels in UP and Sindh. What were the particular social and professional notions underpinning administrator's views of bureaucratic power? How far did these reflect broader changes from a colonial to a democratic political system over the period of independence? This section of the project will go on to examine how popular attitudes in government and society, fuelled social expectations in relation to civil service recruitment, and it will look at how this process reflects on the emergence of Indian and Pakistani middle classes. The research will also examine the extent to which local political groupings based on caste or religious community alliances geared their broader political strategies towards control of local administrations. How did ordinary South Asians mobilise state resources? This objective will engage with the huge interest in contemporary South Asia in state reservations on the basis of caste, and how lobbying groups have adopted particular kinds of political strategies for recruitment into government services. How did these processes compare to the control of state agencies in Pakistan by the middle class north Indian refugee?