The potential of Land Value Capture to secure sustainable urban development supporting air quality enhancement

城市既是污染物排放的主要来源，也是室外空气质量差的受害者（世界银行，2010年）。空气质量差对环境和人类健康有直接的负面影响，从而影响经济增长和社会关怀。世界卫生组织估计，到2018年，80%的城市居民将暴露在高于可接受水平的污染中（WHO，2018）。虽然城市空气质量差的原因因环境而异，但有些问题是普遍存在的;在西欧，40%的城市污染是由交通和家用燃料燃烧造成的，而在中国，这一数字在30%至39%之间（Karagulian等人，2015）。因此，减少住房和交通的污染物是城市的一个关键优先事项（联合国人居署，2015年），然而，为房屋改造清洁能源供应和支持替代城市交通基础设施可能既经济成本高昂，又限制了短期经济增长。因此，城市政府需要考虑政策和融资机制，为城市住房和交通提供资金并进行调整，以限制局部空气污染。成功地满足这一呼吁的两个主题：“减少城市对环境的不利影响”和“提供安全、负担得起和可持续的住房、交通和基本服务”，取决于在税收和为城市适应和提供服务提供资金之间建立一种动态和反应迅速的关系。土地价值捕获（LVC）有望成为一项高效和有效的城市政策，使政府提高城市可持续性和宜居性，特别是改善空气质量所产生的价值得以回收和再投资。低消费量如果得到有效实施，就有可能促成对物质环境进行长期投资，以支持创建可持续社区：形成发展和投资的良性循环。低消费量机制极为多样化，从荷兰市政当局积极的土地集合，到中国使用拍卖，再到英国谈判达成的自由裁量义务协议。每一种机制都试图从国家行动（无论是集会、基础设施提供还是规划许可）中获取一定比例的土地价值提升，以再投资于社会和环境公共产品。然而，每一种系统都因未能满足在气候不稳定的背景下实现经济增长的21世纪最紧迫问题的要求而受到批评（例如，见Crook等人，2016）。在开发过程中获取一定比例的土地价值，提供了一种创新的方式，通过投资于城市环境来改善住房和交通造成的空气质量差。为此，我们将探讨中国、荷兰、法国和英国的两个问题：-空气质量对经济活动和生活质量的影响-替代土地价值捕获机制对改善住房和交通的影响-中国和欧洲城市环境的适应对于提高空气质量作为气候变化的缓解因素和改善宜居性是必要的。低消费量是一种有吸引力的可能性，可供政府为这些适应措施提供资金，并增强城市的经济、社会和环境可持续性。通过规划同意、提供基础设施和经济增长的影响实现的土地价值的提升，可以由国家利用一系列低消费量机制来实现。

Cities are both major contributors to pollutant emissions and victims of poor outdoor air quality (World Bank, 2010). Poor air quality has a direct negative impact on the environment and on human health which has consequences for economic growth and social care. The World Health Organization estimates that 80% of urban residents will be exposed to pollution above acceptable levels in 2018 (WHO, 2018). Whilst the causes of poor urban air quality vary by context some issues are widespread; in Western Europe 40% of the urban pollution is caused by transport and domestic fuel burning, whilst in China this figure is between 30 and 39% (Karagulian et al., 2015). Decreasing the pollutants from housing and transport is therefore a key priority for cities (Un Habitat, 2015), yet retro-fitting cleaner energy provision to houses and supporting alternative urban transport infrastructure can be both financially costly and limiting to short term economic growth. Urban governments, therefore, need to consider policy and finance mechanisms to both fund and adapt urban housing and transport to limit localised air pollution. Successfully meeting the two topics of this call: 'reduction in adverse environmental impact of cities'; and, 'the provision of safe, affordable and sustainable housing, transportation and basic services', is contingent upon creating a dynamic and responsive relationship between taxation and funding the urban adaptations and service provision. Land value capture (LVC) promises to be a highly efficient and effective urban policy to enable the recovery and reinvestment of value arising from government enhancements to urban sustainability and livability, in particular improving air quality. When practiced effectively LVC offers the potential to instigate a longer term process of investment in the physical environment to support the creation of sustainable communities: a virtuous circle of development and investment. LVC mechanisms are extremely diverse, from the active land assembly of municipalities in the Netherlands, to the use of auctions in China and the negotiated agreement of discretionary obligations in England. Each mechanism attempts to capture a proportion of the uplift in land value from state action (whether assembly, infrastructure provision or planning permission) to reinvest in social and environmental public goods. Yet, each system has been criticized for failing to meet the demands of the 21st century's most pressing issue of delivering economic growth within a context of climatic instability (see e.g. Crook et al., 2016). Capturing a proportion of land values in the development process offers an innovative way of improving housing- and transport-induced poor air quality through investing in urban environments. To do this we will explore two issues in China, the Netherlands, France and the UK:- the impact of air quality on economic activity and quality of life- the impact of alternative land value capture mechanisms for enhancing housing and transportation The adaptation of urban environments in China and Europe is necessary to enhance air quality as a mitigating factor in climate change and improve liveability. LVC is one attractive possibility for governments to fund these adaptations and enhance the economic, social and environmental sustainability of cities. The uplift in land values achieved through planning consent, infrastructure provision and the effects of economic growth may be captured by the state using an array of LVC mechanisms.