Artificial Light Impacts on Coastal Ecosystems (ALICE)

夜间，码头、散步道、港口和造船厂的人工灯光（ALAN）照亮了警戒线。由沿海定居点的照明产生的人造天空辉光现在可以在世界22%的海岸上每晚被检测到，并且随着沿海人口到2060年增加一倍以上，人造天空辉光将急剧增加。在海洋上层200米处，对月亮和太阳的生活史适应几乎无处不在，因此光强度和颜色的周期和梯度是海洋生态系统的主要结构因素。ALAN通过干扰自然光周期和它们所提供的生物过程来重塑沿海栖息地生态的潜力越来越受到认可。海洋无脊椎动物在其整个生命周期中对自然光极其敏感。例子包括同步广播产卵的珊瑚礁通知月光周期，浮游动物的敏感性月光在> 100米的深度，和趋光性的幼虫下的光相当于无月的阴天之夜。海洋无脊椎动物的生殖、幼虫和成虫阶段都受到与港口和海港中相同照度的夜间照明的影响。此外，对生物行为的直接影响可以间接影响沿海食物网中的其他物种，改变生态系统结构。沿海ALAN破坏海洋生物、物种相互作用、种群动态和生物分布的潜力是显而易见的。白色发光二极管（LED）（到2020年占全球照明的69%）的使用越来越多，这将加剧ALAN的影响。LED发出更多的蓝色波长光：i）与旧的照明技术相比，更深地渗透到海水中; ii）许多海洋生物的反应最敏感。定制LED以避免蓝色波长代表了一种在陆地上试验的缓解方案，可以通过调查生物反应的光谱依赖性来改进。ALICE将通过开展以下研究来解决我们对海洋生态系统对ALAN反应的理解中的根本差距：实验室实验，以确定ALAN对沿海生物的影响：平行实验将量化ALAN干扰自然光周期对海洋无脊椎动物的生活史反应的影响。这些关系将被用来模拟海洋无脊椎动物种群的增长率暴露于不同强度的冷白色LED灯假设最佳条件下没有捕食者或竞争者。实验室实验，以确定ALAN对物种相互作用的影响：白色LED光强度之间的关系，和物种之间的相互作用（捕食，竞争和互利共生）将在上述实验中同时量化，并用于模拟ALAN对海洋无脊椎动物种群的影响，说明它们在自然界中彼此之间的关系.绘制和模拟ALAN在沿海海洋栖息地的分布：ALAN在沿海沃茨的颜色组成的强度将绘制在三个对比鲜明的城市化英国河口。这些数据和相关的光学模型将与卫星数据一起用于绘制从海面到100米深度的ALAN强度的全球地图。模拟ALAN对物种分布的影响：种群模型（1，2）和ALAN分布模型（3）将允许对可能由ALAN影响导致的物种分布的长期变化进行综合评估。5.量化避免ALAN波长的益处：我们将量化以下生态益处：i）使用滤光器从LED蓝色中去除蓝光; ii）用波长更长的琥珀色LED替换白色。此外，我们会量化海洋无脊椎动物幼虫对不同颜色光缐的反应，以便更好地设计生态友好的LED照明。

Coastlines are illuminated with artificial light at night (ALAN) from piers, promenades, ports harbours, and dockyards. Artificial sky glow created by lighting from coastal settlements can now be detected above 22% of the world's coasts nightly, and will dramatically increase as coastal human populations more than double by year 2060. Life history adaptations to the moon and sun are near ubiquitous in the upper 200m of the sea, such that cycle's and gradients of light intensity and colour are major structuring factors in marine ecosystems. The potential for ALAN to reshape the ecology of coastal habitats by interfering with natural light cycles and the biological processes they inform is increasingly recognised.Marine invertebrates are extremely sensitive to natural light throughout their life cycle. Examples include synchronised broadcast spawning in reef corals informed by moonlight cycles, zooplankton sensitivity to moonlight at >100m depth, and phototaxis of larvae under light equivalent to moonless overcast nights. The reproductive, larval and adult phases of marine invertebrates are all affected by night-time lighting of equivalent illuminances to those found in ports and harbours. Further, direct impacts on organism behaviour can indirectly affect other species in coastal food web's, changing ecosystem structure. The potential for coastal ALAN to disrupt marine organisms, species interactions, population dynamics, and organism distributions is clear.The growing use of white Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) (69% of global lighting by 2020) will exacerbate ALAN's impacts. LEDs emit more blue wavelength light that: i) penetrates deeper into seawater compared to older lighting technologies; and ii) many marine organism responses are most sensitive to. Tailoring LEDs to avoid blue wavelengths represents one mitigation option trialled on land that can be improved by investigating the spectral dependence of biological responses.ALICE will tackle fundamental gaps in our understanding of marine ecosystem responses to ALAN, by carrying out the following research: -1. Laboratory experiments to determine the impacts of ALAN on coastal organisms: Parallel experiments will quantify the impacts of ALAN interference with natural light cycles on the life history responses of marine invertebrates. These relationships will be used to model the growth rate of marine invertebrate populations exposed to different intensities of cool white LED light assuming optimal conditions with no predators or competitors.2. Laboratory experiments to determine the impact of ALAN on species interactions: The relationships between white LED light intensity, and species interactions (predation,competition and mutualism) will be simultaneously quantified during the above experiments, and used to model the impacts of ALAN on marine invertebrate populations accounting for their relationships with one another in nature.3. Mapping and modelling the distribution of ALAN in coastal marine habitats: The intensity of colour composition of ALAN in coastal waters will be mapped across three contrastingly urbanised UK estuaries. These data, and associated optical modelling, will be used with satellite data to globally map ALAN intensity from the sea surface to a depth of 100m.4. Modelling ALAN impacts on species distributions: The population models (1,2) and the ALAN distribution model (3), will allow a synthesis assessment of long term changes in species distributions that may result from ALAN impacts. 5. Quantifying the benefits of avoiding ALAN wavelengths: we will quantify the ecological benefits of: i) removing blue light form LEDs blue using optical filters; ii) replacing white, with longer wavelength Amber LEDs. In addition we will quantify the responses of marine invertebrate larvae to different colours of light, so that the design of ecologically friendly LED lighting can be better informed.