Making the Grade: Science and Values in Agricultural Grades and Standards

该项目研究了科学技术与农业等级和标准之间的关系，包括国家植物基因组计划(G&A；S)。它将明确和明确S在国内外农产品生产和销售中提出的伦理和价值问题，以及围绕农业发展的社会政治动态。它将探索政策含义，使标准制定和执行过程更加负责、透明和民主。标准是评判产品、工艺和生产商的标准。等级是用于执行标准的类别。在市场经济中，G&A S降低了交易成本，建立了可用于订购生产过程的公认惯例，确保了产品质量的一致性，并使生产地点遍布全球成为可能。产品差异化的加剧导致了S集团的大量涌现，而随着贸易和竞争的日益全球化，S集团正在全球范围内进行“一体化”的尝试。此外，S集团还受到测量技术的可获得性和成本的限制，这本身就是科学和工程研究的结果。-S集团至少有三个方面具有社会和伦理意义。(1)并非每个人都参与导致G&P；S的创建、修改或维护的谈判。它们可以由行业团体、非营利组织或市场领导者民主地或专门地设定。(2)尽管G&P S使进入特定市场的规则变得透明，但他们也可能允许或拒绝进入特定产品或劳动力市场，因为缺乏达到该级别所需的某些资产。(3)G&Amp；S可能-也会有积极或消极的结果，包括分配和环境影响。-本研究考察了三个地点的选定商品：(1)美国水果和蔬菜，(2)巴西大豆，(3)马里棉花。这些案例揭示了伦理和价值问题的不同组合。这些网站提供了环境和产品质量之间的联系，对S集团的民主控制程度，资产初始分配的偏差，以及市场的不完美。-研究使用了四种方法：回顾历史研究和主要文件，采访参与S集团创建、修改、执行和执行的人，技术文献的内容分析，以及对评级过程本身的观察，以了解关于评级的决定是如何做出的，以及如何处理模棱两可或有争议的案件。调查人员将检查基因组图谱结果和图谱技术-由国家植物基因组计划产生。他们将采访为特定作物绘制地图和开发地图技术的科学家-这里是感兴趣的，以确定对G&P；S创建、监测和执行的潜在影响。还将对有关植物基因组的文献进行内容分析，以确定未来可能的发展方向，并可能出现以下伦理和价值问题：(1)分配正义。G&P；S(重新)分配财富、收入、声望、权力和地位。(2)权利和民主：在民主社会中，公民有权参与影响他们自己生活的决定；G&A；S越来越多地影响日常生活。(3)风险。G&A；S可以定义可接受风险的水平，在不同人群之间分配风险和防范风险，并将非自愿风险强加给某些人或人群。(4)美德。作为公共措施，G&A；S是展示包括信任、真实和诚实在内的美德的手段。(5)对子孙后代的责任。既然S改变了人类的行为，我们可能会问，我们今天对这些行为所做的决定是否会对我们后代的福祉产生负面影响。(6)环境伦理。G&A S提出了与环境责任有关的重要问题，并可能以这样一种方式分配环境问题-只有那些没有能力抵抗的人才必须面对有害的环境后果。

This project examines the-relationships which connect science and technology, including the National Plant Genome Initiative,-to agricultural grades and standards (G&S). It will identify and make explicit the ethical-and value issues raised by G&S in domestic and international agricultural production and marketing, and the sociopolitical dynamics surrounding developments in agricultural-G&S. It will explore policy implications for making the process of standards setting and enforcement more accountable, transparent and democratic. Standards are measures by which products, processes and producers are judged. Grades are-categories used to implement the standards. In a market economy, G&S reduce transaction costs,-establish agreed upon conventions that can be used to order production processes, ensure consistent-product quality, and make possible the location of production around the globe. Increasing product-differentiation is leading to a proliferation of G&S while, with increasing-globalization of trade and competition, a-worldwide attempt at `harmonization` of G&S is underway. In addition, G&S are limited by the availability and-cost of measurement technology, itself the result of scientific and engineering research.- At least three aspects of G&S are of social and ethical import. (1) Not everyone participates in the-negotiations leading to the creation, modification or maintenance of G&S. They may be set-democratically, or exclusively by industry groups, nonprofits or market leaders. (2) Although G&S make-the rules for entry into a given market transparent, they may also allow or deny access to particular-product or labor markets because certain assets necessary to make the grade are lacking. (3) G&S may-also have either positive or negative outcomes including distributive and environmental effects.- This research examines selected commodities at three sites: (1) US fruits and vegetables, (2) Brazilian-soybeans, and (3) Malian cotton. The cases reveal different combinations of ethical and value issues. The sites provide variation in the links between environment and product quality, degree of democratic control over G&S, skewing in the initial distribution of assets, and market `imperfections.` -The study uses four types of methods: review of historical studies and primary documents, interviews with persons involved in the creation, modification,-execution and enforcement of G&S, content analysis of the technical literature, and observation of the grading process itself, to understand-how decisions are made about grading and how ambiguous or disputed cases are handled.- The investigators will examine genome mapping results and mapping techniques-resulting from the National Plant Genome Initiative. They will interview scientists mapping and developing mapping technologies for the specific crops-of interest here, to determine-potential impacts on G&S creation, monitoring and enforcement. A content analysis of the literature on-plant genomes will also be conducted, so as to determine probable future directions of development and-likely ethical import of the Genome Initiative for G&S.-The following ethical and value issues are likely to emerge: (1) Distributive justice. G&S (re)distribute wealth, income, prestige, power and status. (2) Rights and democracy: In-democratic societies citizens have a right to participate in decisions that affect their own lives; G&S increasingly affect daily life. (3) Risk. G&S may define-levels of acceptable risk, distribute risks and protection from risks differently across-populations and impose involuntary risks on certain persons or populations. (4) Virtues. As public measures, G&S-are means for demonstrating virtues including trust, truth and honesty. (5) Duty to future generations. Since-G&S modify human behavior, we may ask whether decisions we make about them today will affect-negatively the welfare of our progeny. (6) Environmental ethics. G&S raise important issues with respect to duties toward the environment, and may distribute environmental problems in such a way-that only those without means to resist must face the deleterious environmental consequences.-