The Roots of Human Sociality: An Ethno-Experimental Exploration of the Foundations of Economic Norms in 16 Small-Scale Societies

[136761]恩斯明格·亨利希在所有人类社会中，广泛的社会现象是由自我调节的制度或规定适当行为和对不适当行为的适当制裁的一系列规范所支配的。这些规范影响着范围广泛的人类活动，从婚姻模式和性别不平等到政治进程和市场交换。尽管有相当多的人同意这种制度的存在，但现有的理论很难解释形成社会互动基础的亲社会规范（例如，公平标准或惩罚违反规范者的规则）的起源和维持。来自社会科学领域的实验和实地数据都表明，狭隘的经济自利假设和基于亲属关系或互惠的进化模型都不足以解释观察到的人类亲社会性模式。为了探索人类社会规范和偏好的多样性，1998年麦克阿瑟基金会邀请了12位经验丰富的野外人类学家，在小规模社会中率先使用实验性经济方法。在第二阶段的研究中，研究人员将通过实验测量个人对利他主义（或公平）、直接惩罚（惩罚违反规范者的意愿）和第三方惩罚（第三方观察者为惩罚不公平付出代价的意愿）的偏好/品味，探索16个小规模社会的社会规范基础。在世界上大多数大陆上，这些野外场所包括采集者、刀耕火种的园艺师、游牧民族、小规模农业生产者和城市雇佣劳动者。在这种环境下进行实验的一个好处是，实验对象的社会范围比在美国大学实验室中通常发现的要宽。这项新研究的总体目标是复制早期的工作（包括发现利他行为随着市场整合水平的增加而增加），通过包括九个新站点和新实验来扩大研究范围，加强跨站点的数据收集方法，并通过新的可测试的预测来扩展研究。三个游戏的核心包（独裁者，最后通牒与战略方法，和第三方惩罚游戏）将在所有16个现场使用。此外，该小组的子集将进行四项补充研究，以检验：1)社交网络与信任之间的关系，2)通过操纵游戏在当地文化中的呈现而产生的框架效应，3)实验者对双盲游戏中受试者决策的知识的影响，以及4)游戏行为的时间，个人内部可复制性，即如果与相同的受试者重复相同的游戏，偏好会改变吗？一个庞大而多样化的研究小组的优势之一是带来了各种各样的理论传统和兴趣。该小组的学者在进化论、心理人类学、理性选择、新制度经济学、发展和网络分析等领域进行了主要的理论和实证研究。以往的经验表明，这种理论的多样性激发了新的想法，创新的实证工作，并通过范式冲突产生的挑战促进了理论的发展。该项目应有助于探索社会学习、制度、文化进化和文化-基因共同进化对人类行为的重要性的理论工作。

0136761Ensminger & HenrichIn all human societies, a wide range of social phenomena are governed by self-regulating institutions, or sets of norms that prescribe appropriate behaviors and proper sanctions for inappropriate behavior. Such norms influence an enormous range of human activity, from marriage patterns and sexual inequality to political processes and market exchange. Despite a fair amount of agreement that such institutions exist, extant theories struggle to explain the genesis and maintenance of pro-social norms (e.g., standards of fairness, or rules for punishing norm violators) that form the bedrock of social interaction. Both experimental and field data from across the social sciences indicate that neither assumptions of narrow economic self-interest nor evolutionary models based on kinship or reciprocity are sufficient to account for the observed patterns of human pro-sociality. To probe the diversity of social norms and preferences across the human spectrum, in 1998 the MacArthur Foundation invited twelve experienced field anthropologists to pioneer the use of experimental economic methods in small-scale societies. In this second phase of research, the researchers will explore the foundations of social norms by experimentally measuring individuals' preferences/tastes for altruism (or fairness), direct punishment (willingness to punish norm violators), and third party punishment (willingness of third-party observers to pay a price to punish unfairness) across 16 small-scale societies. These field sites include foragers, slash and burn horticulturalists, pastoral-nomads, small-scale agriculturalists, and urban wage laborers on most continents of the world. One of the advantages of running experiments in these contexts is that the social spectrum of subjects is broadened from those typically found in U.S. university laboratories. The overall objectives of this new research are to replicate the earlier work (including the finding that altruistic behavior increases with the level of market integration), to broaden the research by including nine new sites and new experiments, to tighten the data collection methods across sites, and to extend the research with new testable predictions. A core package of three games (the Dictator, Ultimatum with Strategy Method, and Third-Party Punishment Games) will be used at all 16 field sites. In addition, subsets of the group will pursue four supplemental studies to examine: 1) the relationship between social networks and trust, 2) framing effects created by manipulating the presentation of the games in the local culture, 3) the effect of the experimenter's knowledge of subjects' decisions in double-blind games, and 4) the temporal, intra-individual replicability of game behavior, i.e. if the same game is repeated with the same subjects, do preferences change? One of the advantages of a large and diverse group of researchers is the variety of theoretical traditions and interests brought to the table. The group contains scholars who have done their major theoretical and empirical work in the fields of evolutionary theory, psychological anthropology, rational choice, new institutional economics, development, and network analysis. Previous experience has shown that this theoretical diversity inspires novel ideas, innovative empirical work, and theoretical development through the challenges that arise from the clash of paradigms. This project should contribute to theoretical work that explores the importance of social learning, institutions, cultural evolution, and culture-gene co-evolution on human behavior.