The Poverty in Rural Indonesia and an Analysis of Its Causes

收入分配可以从宏观经济和微观经济两个角度进行分析。从宏观经济角度观察，印尼制造业增加值的劳动份额在过去20年呈下降趋势。这种下降趋势主要是由农业部门的剩余劳动力、制造业部门的节省劳动力的技术以及印度尼西亚经济中工资水平的提高造成的。要扭转印尼经济的这种收入分配趋势，印尼经济必须首先通过提高农业劳动生产率或将农业劳动力转移到非农业部门来减少农业部门的剩余劳动力。一个经济体只有在经历了从劳动力过剩到劳动力短缺的转折点后，才能提高劳动力在增加值中所占的份额。从社会会计矩阵（SAM）也可以观察到印尼经济中劳动份额的下降趋势。根据SAM的分析，实际人均消费水平从1995年的20.4万印尼盾下降到1998年的15.7万印尼盾，再下降到15万印尼盾，主要原因是经济危机期间价格上涨。因此，贫困线以下的人口暂时增加。印尼家庭社会经济调查可以从微观经济的角度进行分析。报告显示，贫困线以下的家庭有三分之二位于农村地区。家庭消费水平主要与土地持有情况、户主受教育程度、家庭规模相关，与户主职业、性别、年龄关系不密切。此外，一年额外教育的边际消费支出约为5%，无论户主的职业如何，这个数字几乎是相同的。一年额外教育的边际回报率非常高，从长远来看，教育是减少贫困的一项非常有效的措施。但是，在现实中，低收入家庭的孩子的教育水平很可能很低，然后贫困家庭的特征就会传递给下一代。从短期来看，通过提高农村小企业的生产率，从而扩大农村地区的就业机会，可以减轻贫困。使无地农民拥有土地对减少农村贫困也很重要。少

Income distribution can be analyzed from macro economic and micro economic points of view. An observation from a macro economic point of view shows a declining trend of labor share of value-added in the manufacturing sector over the last 20 years in Indonesia. This declining trend has been created by mainly surplus labor in the agricultural sector, labor saving technology in the manufacturing sector, and increasing wage rates in Indonesian economy. To turn around this trend of income distribution in Indonesian economy, Indonesian economy has to firstly reduce surplus labor in the agricultural sector either by improving agricultural labor productivity or by shifting agricultural labor forces to the non-agricultural sectors. An economy can increase labor share of value-added only after passing a turning point from a labor surplus to a labor shortage economy. A declining trend of labor share in Indonesian economy can be observed from a social accounting matrix (SAM), too. Based on SAM ana … More lysis, a real percapita consumption level declined from Rp204,000 in 1995 to Rp157,000 in 1998 and to Rp150,000 mainly due to price increase during the economic crisis. As a result, population below the poverty line increased temporarily.Indonesian household social and economic survey can be used for analysis from a micro economic point of view. It shows that two third of households below the poverty lines are located in rural areas. Household consumption levels are mainly related to land holding situations, educational levels of household head, and family size, but not closely related to occupation, gender and age of household heads. In addition, marginal consumption expenditure with respect to a year of addition education is approximately 5 percent and the figure is almost same regardless of household heads' occupation. Marginal rate of return with respect to a year of addition education is very high and education is a very effective measure to reduce poverty in the long run. But, in reality, the educational levels of children from the low income households are likely to be low and then the characteristics of poor households will be passed over to the next generation. In the short run, the poverty will be alleviated by improving productivity of rural small enterprises and then expanding employment opportunity in rural areas. It is also important to make landless farmers to own land for reducing poverty in rural areas. Less