Improving productivity in developing countries: Identifying bottlenecks and obstacles to investments and technology adoption

我们建议开展五个研究项目，以解决一个总体主题：研究通过将个人困在低生产率活动中，同时错过生产性（高回报）投资机会（包括采用新技术）而阻碍发展进程的不完善和制约因素。我们将研究埃塞俄比亚、马拉维、印度和巴基斯坦的不同情况，这些情况的多样性将提供一个广泛的画面，了解阻碍或严重限制许多发展中国家进步和经济增长的摩擦和制约因素，并特别关注农村地区的农业活动。我们将重点关注四个主题：(i)缺乏投资决策的信息（关于技术诀窍或回报）；（ii）市场失灵：进入正规信贷和保险市场的机会有限；（iii）市场联系和基础设施的限制；（iv）与社会规范有关的限制：性别角色；网络的作用。这些一般主题将在五个不同的背景下发展。我们建议的研究使用收集的数据来评估旨在提高其受益者的生产力和福利的具体干预措施。我们以影响估计为起点，利用干预引起的变化来估计个人行为的结构模型，并描述阻碍生产性投资采用的不完善之处。这种方法将使我们能够理解导致观察到的影响的机制，更一般地说，是个人选择的决定因素。反过来，这将使我们能够从影响评估中总结出证据，并可能改进干预措施。第一个项目考虑向巴基斯坦贫困地区的贫困家庭提供培训和生产性资产。这些干预措施还将这些家庭与市场和市场机会联系起来。目的是确定与农民知识和缺乏市场联系有关的限制是否会导致牲畜饲养的低生产力水平。这个项目涉及主题(i)到（iv）。第二个项目分析了在印度偏远地区实施的类似干预措施。然而，在这里，要投资牲畜，受益人必须获得小额贷款。这使我们能够将投资决策与信贷和保险的可用性以及家庭可获得的活动成本和回报信息联系起来。一个创新的特征是使用主观期望来建模投资决策。本项目与主题(i)至（iii）相关。第三个项目着眼于埃塞俄比亚采用创新灌溉技术的情况，以确定信息的缺乏以及信贷和保险市场的不完善如何对采用新技术构成障碍。在其各个分支机构，它向受益人提供信息、资源和信贷。它与主题(i)和（ii）相关。第四个项目分析了环境卫生干预措施对印度贫困地区的影响，特别是环境卫生改善对中期和长期生产力的间接影响，主要是通过健康方面的影响。它还研究了这是否会改变家庭内部的权力平衡，因为女性往往对更好的卫生设施有更高的要求。本研究项目与主题（一）至（四）相关。第五个项目的动机是不健康与长期生产力之间的联系。它力求回答这样一个问题：社会规范是否妨碍马拉维农村采用和传播新的保健做法，从而造成传播新技术和其他提高生产力的做法遇到瓶颈。这涉及主题（一）和（四）。这一研究议程最终将有助于设计有效的政策和制度，以帮助克服这些缺陷，提高长期生产率和经济增长。

We propose to develop five research projects to address one overarching theme: the study of imperfections and constraints that hinder the process of development by trapping individuals in low-productivity activities, while missing out on productive (high return) investment opportunities, including the adoption of new technology. We will study different contexts in Ethiopia, Malawi, India and Pakistan, that, in their diversity, will provide a broad picture of the frictions and constraints that prevent or severely limit progress and economic growth in many countries in the developing world with a particular focus on agricultural activities in a rural context. We will focus on four themes:(i) lack of information (on know-how or on returns) for making investment decisions(ii) market failures: limited access to formal credit and insurance markets(iii) constraints to market linkages and infrastructure(iv) constraints relating to social norms: gender roles; the role of networks.These general themes will be developed in five different contexts. The studies we propose use data collected for the evaluation of specific interventions aimed at improving the productivity and welfare of their beneficiaries. We take the impact estimates as a starting point and use the variation induced by the interventions to estimate structural models of individual behaviour and characterise the imperfections that hinder the adoption of productive investments. This approach will allow us to understand the mechanisms causing the observed impacts and, more generally, the determinants of individual choices. In turn, this will allow us to generalize the evidence from the impact evaluations and possibly improve the interventions.The first project considers the provision of training and productive assets to indigent households in poor districts in Pakistan. The interventions also link these households to markets and market opportunities. The aim is to identify whether constraints relating to farmer knowledge and lack of market linkages result in low levels of productivity in livestock rearing. This project speaks to themes (i) through (iv).The second project analyses a similar intervention, implemented in a remote region of India. Here however, to invest in livestock, beneficiaries have to take out a micro-loan. This allows us to relate investment decisions to the availability of credit and insurance, as well as to information on the activity's costs and returns available to households. An innovative feature is the use of subjective expectations to model investment decisions. This project is relevant for themes (i) through (iii).The third project looks at the adoption of innovative irrigation technologies in Ethiopia to determine how lack of information and imperfections in credit and insurance markets pose barriers to the adoption of new technology. In its various branches, it provides information, resources and credit to beneficiaries. It is relevant for themes (i) and (ii).The fourth project analyses the impacts of a sanitation intervention in poor parts of India, and particularly the indirect impacts of improved sanitation on medium- and long-term productivity, mainly through health. It also studies whether this changes the balance of power within the household, given that females tend to have a higher demand for better sanitation. This research project is relevant for themes (i) through (iv).The fifth, project is motivated by the link between ill-health and long-run productivity. It seeks to answer the question of whether social norms hinder the adoption and diffusion of new health practices in rural Malawi, thus contributing to bottlenecks in the diffusion of new technology and other practices that enhance productivity. This addresses themes (i) and (iv).This research agenda will ultimately help to design effective policies and institutions to help overcome these imperfections and improve long-run productivity and economic growth.