What makes an effective warning signal?

什么是有效的警告信号？

• 批准号: BB/N006569/1
• 负责人: Julie Harris
• 金额: $ 45.04万
• 依托单位: University of St Andrews
• 依托单位国家: 英国
• 项目类别: Research Grant
• 财政年份: 2016
• 资助国家: 英国
• 起止时间: 2016 至 无数据
• 项目状态: 已结题
• 来源: https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=BB%2FN006569%2F1
• 关键词: What; makes; effective; warning; signal

Many animals exhibit camouflage patterns that help them remain hidden against their background and be less visible to predators. But some animals have vivid, bright colouring that makes them stand out in their environment. Whilst some conspicuous patterns are known to be involved in attracting a mate, others have evolved to warn a predator that the animal is poisonous or unpalatable. These warning patterns are described as being 'aposematic', and are commonly found in insects, for example, monarch butterflies, ladybirds and wasps. Although aposematic patterns look like they might attract predators, in fact they act as a deterrent. Predators are wary towards prey that are warningly coloured, such as being red or yellow, and are quick to learn that warning colours signal danger and avoid aposematically coloured prey. Although warning signals, like camouflage patterns, have fascinated biologists for more than 150 years, there is still no clear understanding of what features make these patterns distinctive and effective against predators, or how they are designed to exploit the ways in which predators see the world. Indeed, definitions of aposematic patterns are loosely descriptive, for example, they are described as 'striking', 'conspicuous' or 'distinctive'. But what is it that sets these patterns apart from others in the natural world: what makes an effective warning signal?In this project, we propose to tackle this important question through mathematical modeling, and experiments with chicks and humans. For the first time, we will measure the patterns of aposematic and non-aposematic species, and use image processing techniques to quantify the characteristics of aposematic patterns. We will collect photographs of butterflies, moths and beetles from museum collections using techniques that allow us to 'see' the patterns as a foraging bird would. For example, we know what colours and patterns avian visual systems are most sensitive to, and can calculate how warning signals stimulate their visual systems. Once the models have made their predictions we can test them using behavioural experiments that measure how birds react to the aposematic patterns and what features enhance prey survival.We also plan to test a novel hypothesis for why aposematic patterns act as warning signals. Humans find particular classes of pattern (e.g. stripes or spots of specific sizes and arrangements) aversive or uncomfortable. It has been suggested that these patterns could 'overload' the brain, and make these signals aversive. We will build a computational model of the early stages of visual processing in the brain, and test if aposematic patterns do deliver excessive responses. We will then test the model by choosing patterns that should visually overload humans, and taking classic visual discomfort measures.The project will allow us to understand the form and function of aposematic patterns, and finally give us a precise and working definition. The work will broad appeal to the general public, and potentially improve the efficacy of visual alerts and avian deterrents.

许多动物表现出伪装模式，帮助他们保持隐藏在他们的背景和不太明显的掠食者。但有些动物有生动，明亮的色彩，使他们在他们的环境中脱颖而出。虽然已知一些明显的图案与吸引配偶有关，但其他图案已经进化为警告捕食者该动物有毒或不好吃。这些警告模式被描述为“警戒”，并且通常在昆虫中发现，例如帝王蝶，瓢虫和黄蜂。虽然警戒图案看起来像是会吸引掠食者，但实际上它们起到了威慑作用。捕食者对红色或黄色等警告性颜色的猎物保持警惕，并迅速了解警告颜色表示危险，并避免警告颜色的猎物。虽然警告信号，如伪装图案，已经吸引了生物学家超过150年，仍然没有清楚的了解是什么特征使这些图案与众不同，有效地对抗捕食者，或者它们是如何设计的，以利用捕食者看待世界的方式。事实上，警戒模式的定义是松散的描述，例如，他们被描述为“引人注目”，“引人注目”或“独特”。但是，是什么让这些模式与自然界中的其他模式区别开来：是什么让一个有效的警告信号？在这个项目中，我们建议通过数学建模以及小鸡和人类的实验来解决这个重要问题。我们将首次测量警戒和非警戒物种的模式，并使用图像处理技术来量化警戒模式的特征。我们将从博物馆收集蝴蝶，飞蛾和甲虫的照片，使用技术，使我们能够“看到”的模式作为一个觅食的鸟类会。例如，我们知道鸟类视觉系统对什么颜色和图案最敏感，并且可以计算出警告信号如何刺激它们的视觉系统。一旦模型做出了预测，我们就可以用行为实验来测试它们，这些实验测量鸟类对警戒模式的反应以及哪些特征可以提高猎物的生存率。我们还计划测试一个新的假设，为什么警戒模式可以作为警告信号。人类发现特定类别的图案（例如特定大小和排列的条纹或斑点）令人厌恶或不舒服。有人认为，这些模式可能会使大脑“过载”，并使这些信号令人厌恶。我们将建立一个大脑视觉处理早期阶段的计算模型，并测试警戒模式是否会产生过度反应。然后，我们将通过选择应该在视觉上使人类过载的模式，并采取经典的视觉不适措施来测试模型。该项目将使我们能够理解警戒模式的形式和功能，并最终给我们一个精确的工作定义。这项工作将广泛吸引公众，并可能提高视觉警报和鸟类威慑的效力。

项目成果

Pattern variation is linked to anti-predator coloration in butterfly larvae.

• DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0811
• 发表时间: 2023-06-28
• 期刊: PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY B-BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
• 影响因子: 4.7
• 作者: McLellan, Callum F.;Cuthill, Innes C.;Montgomery, Stephen H.
• 通讯作者: Montgomery, Stephen H.

A computational neuroscience framework for quantifying warning signals

用于量化警告信号的计算神经科学框架

• DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.14268
• 发表时间: 2023
• 期刊: Methods in Ecology and Evolution
• 影响因子: 6.6
• 作者: Penacchio O

Stripes for warning and stripes for hiding: spatial frequency and detection distance

• DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arw168
• 发表时间: 2017-03-01
• 期刊: BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY
• 影响因子: 2.4
• 作者: Barnett, James B.;Redfern, Annabelle S.;Cuthill, Innes C.
• 通讯作者: Cuthill, Innes C.

Warning Coloration, Body Size, and the Evolution of Gregarious Behavior in Butterfly Larvae

蝴蝶幼虫的警告颜色、体型和群居行为的进化

• DOI: 10.1086/724818
• 发表时间: 2023
• 期刊: The American Naturalist
• 作者: McLellan C

Avian Cognition

• DOI: 10.2989/00306525.2018.1496311
• 发表时间: 2018-07
• 期刊: Ostrich
• 影响因子: 1
• 作者: S. T. Osinubi