Investigating the basic principles of affective learning II. The acquistion of valent motor reactions.

态度非常重要，因为它们被视为行为的预测者。人们接近他们喜欢的物体、个人和事件，而避开他们不喜欢的东西。到目前为止，态度和行为之间的关系主要从四个研究方向来研究：第一，态度，特别是态度的习得，或多或少是独立于行为而研究的。因此，在评价性学习中，重点是新获得的态度的形成，而不是(行为)后果。另一种方法认为态度是行为的前提条件；在不和谐理论(Festinger，1958)的背景下，从第三个研究角度来看，态度被视为行为的结果。如果发生了与态度不一致的行为，态度应该改变，以减少不和谐。第四，态度因其行为后果(即奖励/惩罚)而改变(Insko，1965)。最近的行动控制理论为态度和行动之间的相互作用提供了一个新的视角，这些理论假设了注意、学习和行动之间的密切关系。基于这一观点，在态度学习的情况下，可以假设刺激和行动的评估方面的重叠编码。从这一假设出发，可以得出理论上的新假说，即行为不仅通过操纵性强化获得评价性内涵，还通过评价性刺激和反应模式的重叠编码获得。因此，运动反应本身可以获得价态(即积极或消极的意义)，并通过条件反射将这种价态转移到其他行为或刺激上。这种习得价态运动的观点不仅对态度和行为的相互作用提供了新的理论见解，而且对习惯的形成以及动作最初是如何学习和稳定的问题也有重要的影响。此外，这一观点允许在评价性学习领域进行新的理论推导。

Attitudes are of high importance, as they are seen as a predictor of behavior. People approach objects, individuals and events they like and avoid those they dislike. The relationship between attitudes and behavior has been studied so far primarily from four research directions: First, attitudes and especially their acquisition have been studied more or less independently of actions. Thus, in evaluative learning the focus is on the formation and not on the (behavioral) consequences of newly acquired attitudes. Another approach considers attitudes as a precondition of behavior; from a third research perspective in the context of dissonance theory (Festinger, 1958), attitudes are regarded as a consequence of behavior. If behavior inconsistent to attitudes takes place, the attitude should change in order to reduce dissonance. Fourth, attitudes are changed by their behavioral consequences (i.e., reward/punishment) (Insko, 1965). A new perspective on the interplay between attitudes and action emerges from recent theories on action control, in which close relationships between attention, learning and action are assumed. Based on this perspective, an overlapping encoding of - in the case of attitude learning - evaluative aspects of stimuli and action can be assumed. From this assumption, the theoretically new hypothesis can be derived that actions do not acquire evaluative connotations solely through operant reinforcement, but also through the overlapping encoding of evaluative stimulus and response patterns. Consequently, motor responses could acquire valence themselves (i.e., a positive or negative meaning), and transfer this valence to other actions or stimuli through conditioning. This perspective of the acquisition of valent motorical actions does not only provide new theoretical insights into the interplay of attitudes and behavior, but has also important implications, for example, for the formation of habits and the questions of how action is learned and stabilized in the first place. Moreover, this perspective allows new theorizing in the field of evaluative learning.