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Male, Female or In-Between? The Science of Hermaphroditism in Spain, 1850-1960

男性、女性还是介于两者之间？

基本信息

批准号：
AH/E003028/1
负责人：
Richard Cleminson
金额：
$ 2.63万
依托单位：
University of Leeds
依托单位国家：
英国
项目类别：
Research Grant
财政年份：
2007
资助国家：
英国
起止时间：
2007 至无数据
项目状态：
已结题

来源：
https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=AH%2FE003028%2F1
关键词：
Male Female Between Science Hermaphroditism

项目摘要

At least since Ovid's story in Book IV of his Metamorphoses, in which the gods Hermes and Aphrodite, embodiments of ideal manhood and womanhood, had a son named Hermaphroditos, has hermaphroditism been a subject of fascination for the West. Hermaphroditos was also a perfect man but his encounter with the nymph Salamacis, who requested that the gods united her to the boy, resulted in Hermaphrodite, a body with double sex or 'in-between' status. Such a story fired the western literary and medical imagination both for its attractiveness /the harmonious combination of two 'opposites' in one body / and for its marvellous or unsettling nature/ the mixing of the two sexes that would neither be one nor the other but which might signify great good or evil to come.The hermaphrodite as a marvellous entity continued in the western imagination amongst natural philosophers and literary exponents until the eighteenth century when a profound transformation took place. The 'real' human hermaphrodite, actually uniting more than one sex, slowly lost currency as secularization and changes in science took place. From this period, the real hermaphrodite was declared impossible in humans and scientists began to talk about 'pseudo-hermaphrodites' or bodies that appeared to combine the two sexes. From the early nineteenth century, doctors presented with cases of ambiguous sex drew up taxonomies for the identification of the real biological sex, often for legal purposes or for permission to marry. Instead of classifying most of these persons as real hermaphrodites, they graded the differences between the sexes and allowed for the combination of different traits of each sex in the same body. On this basis, a final declaration would be made as to the real sex of the person. Thus, under the category of pseudo-hermaphroditism individuals could be designated male pseudo-hermaphrodites if they were judged to be primarily male and female pseudo-hermaphrodites if the opposite were true.What methods of diagnosis allowed doctors to identify the real sex of the body? If previous methods had utilized primarily sight and touch as the principal tool for sex identification by examining the external genitalia, from the early to mid-nineteenth century the criteria aiding identification changed to incorporate a broader variety of characteristics including comportment, hirsuteness, timbre of voice, existence of breasts and gestures. From the late nineteenth century, new diagnostic techniques allowed for the extirpation and analysis of the ovaries and testes under the microscope. In this way, the ovaries and the testes, or the gonads, became the overriding guideline in the determination of sex. The science of hermaphroditism, however, did not rely on sex identification from the gonads alone for long. From the 1920s, with the discovery of 'male' and 'female' hormones, endocrinological accounts of real sex took centre stage. The 'truth' of the body was now found to lie in the hormones secreted by the body and not necessarily in the gonads. However, in the 1930s it was confirmed that some hormones previously known as 'female' were found in non-hermaphroditic males and vice versa. The idea that the two sexes were radically different and incompatible led, with the aid of new psychological theories of gender development, to the notion that the sexes were graded rather than rigidly differentiated and that a variety of factors / genital, gonadal, hormonal and psychological / conferred the real sex of the person.As can be seen, changing factors were articulated by medicine in order to declare the sex of an 'intersex' individual. This research project focuses on how these processes were played out in Spain during the years 1850-1960 in order to assess whether this country followed other broadly European diagnoses of sex in line with the shift from identification being based on the genitalia, to being based on the gonads, the hormones, and, finally, psychological gender mix.

至少从奥维德在他的《变形记》第四卷中的故事开始，雌雄同体就一直是西方着迷的主题。在这个故事中，神爱马仕和阿芙罗狄蒂，理想的男人和女人的化身，有一个儿子名叫雌雄同体。Hermaphroditos也是一个完美的人，但他遇到了仙女Salamanti，谁要求她的神结合的男孩，导致了Hermaphrodite，一个身体与双性或'中间'的地位。这样一个故事激发了西方文学和医学的想象力，既因为它的吸引力/两个“对立面”在一个身体中的和谐结合/也因为它的奇妙或令人不安的性质/两性的混合，既不是一个也不是另一个，但可能意味着伟大的善或恶的到来。雌雄同体作为一个奇妙的实体继续在西方的想象中的自然哲学家和文学的代表直到世纪发生了深刻的变革。“真实的”人类雌雄同体，实际上结合了不止一种性别，随着世俗化和科学的变化，慢慢失去了货币。从这一时期开始，真实的雌雄同体被认为是不可能的，科学家们开始谈论“假雌雄同体”或似乎是两性联合收割机的身体。从世纪早期开始，医生们在遇到性别不明确的病例时，通常为了法律的目的或为了获得结婚许可，起草了分类法来鉴定真实的生物性别。他们没有把这些人中的大多数人归类为真实的雌雄同体，而是对两性之间的差异进行了分级，并允许在同一个身体中结合每种性别的不同特征。在此基础上，最后宣布该人的真实的性别。因此，在假两性畸形的范畴下，如果一个人被判断为主要是男性，而如果相反的情况是女性，那么他就可以被称为男性假两性畸形者。什么样的诊断方法可以让医生确定身体的真实的性别？如果说以前的方法主要是通过检查外生殖器来利用视觉和触觉作为性别鉴定的主要工具，那么从世纪早期到19世纪中期，辅助鉴定的标准发生了变化，纳入了更广泛的各种特征，包括举止、多毛、声音的音色、乳房的存在和手势。从世纪后期开始，新的诊断技术允许在显微镜下摘除和分析卵巢和睾丸。就这样，卵巢和睾丸，或性腺，成为决定性别的压倒一切的准则。然而，雌雄同体的科学并没有长期依赖于性腺的性别鉴定。从20世纪20年代开始，随着“雄性”和“雌性”激素的发现，内分泌学对真实的性的解释占据了中心舞台。现在发现身体的“真相”在于身体分泌的激素，而不一定是性腺。然而，在20世纪30年代，人们证实了一些以前被称为“雌性”的激素在非雌雄同体的男性中发现，反之亦然。两性是完全不同和不相容的，这种观念在性别发展的新心理学理论的帮助下，导致了这样一种观念，即性别是分级的，而不是严格区分的，各种因素/生殖器、性腺、荷尔蒙和心理/赋予了一个人的真实的性别。医学上阐明了各种变化因素，以便宣布一个“双性”个体的性别。这个研究项目的重点是这些过程是如何在1850年至1960年期间在西班牙发挥出来，以评估这个国家是否遵循其他广泛的欧洲诊断的性别从识别基于生殖器的转变，基于性腺，激素，最后，心理性别组合。